1
Q
lactose = __ sugar
A
milk
2
Q
lactose is the primary source of __ for all young mammals, including __ __.
A
carbohydrates, human infants
3
Q
what classification of carbohydrates is lactose?
A
disaccharide
4
Q
what hydrolyzes lactose?
A
lactase (beta-galactosidase)
5
Q
when does the ability to digest lactose stop in most populations?
A
in childhood
6
Q
after childhood, continued production of lactase is considered what?
A
a genetically determined trait
7
Q
if the body cannot digest lactose, what happens to it?
A
lactose is fermented by bacteria in the colon -> produce gases like CO2, methane and H2
8
Q
what does lactose attract when it is not digested and what does it cause?
A
it osmotically attracts fluids into the bowel lumen, causing diarrhea
9
Q
what is lactase persistence?
A
genetically programmed continued activity of the lactase enzyme into adulthood
10
Q
how many copies of LP is required for it to show?
A
only one copy of the allele because it is a dominant trait
11
Q
LP phenotype only needs to receive __ copy of the __ __-__ allele from their parents
A
1, high lactase-activity
12
Q
LNP phenotype is ___ and receive __ copies of the __ __-__ allele from their parents
A
homozygous, 2, low lactase-activity
13
Q
which one is the mutant and ancestral allele from LN and LNP?
A
LN = mutant allele
LNP = ancestral allele
14
Q
how did LP arose?
A
independently
15
Q
which part of the population is lactose tolerance mostly found?
A
in population with a long history of consuming milk products
16
Q
explain the pastoralism -> LP gene-culture coevolution hypothesis
A
populations were practicing pastoralism
LP mutation occurred
The allele provided a selective advantage and was fixed in the population
17
Q
explain the LP -> pastoralism gene-culture coevolution hypothesis
A
LP mutation occurred
The allele became fixed in the population at high frequencies
Pastoralism spread
18
Q
there is evidence that fermented milk products, like yogurt and cheese, have been produced since around ___ ___.
A
10 000 BCE
19
Q
can LNP individuals still tolerate dairy products?
A
yes, they can tolerate dairy products in which lactose is broken down by LA fermentation process
20
Q
what is LA fermentation?
A
LAB ferment lactose -> lactic acid
21
Q
which mineral is important for skeletal integrity?
A
calcium
22
Q
99% of body calcium is in the form of what? where is it found?
A
calcium hydroxyapatite
found in bones and teeth
23
Q
what 2 other requirements (aside from calcium) is important for skeletal integrity?
A
vit D and protein
24
Q
what is a substitute for vitamin D for skeletal integrity?
A
sunshine
25
how does vitamin D contribute to skeletal integrity?
increases Ca absorption in SI
Increases Ca reabsorption in the kidney
Increases bone mineralization
26
what nutrients does milk possess?
vitamins A, D, B12
riboflavin
Ca
P
E and fat
27
is milk a clean liquid?
yes
28
people consume milk because rather than __ animals for meat, you __ them
killing, milk
29
what is ethanol known for?
as ethyl alcohol or drinking alcohol
30
in nature, what ferments fruit sugars and what does it produce?
yeast ferments fruit sugars
produces CO2 and EtOH (ethanol)
31
EtOH is a __ and a CNS __
toxin, depressant
32
A gene mutation allowed apes to digest fermented fruit without experiencing __ ___ ___ which arose __ ___ years ago.
severe EtOH intoxication, 4 million
33
what type of plants have people used to ferment? give examples.
plants containing starch or sugar
fruit, rice, corn, cassava, cacti, potatoes, etc.
34
7 000 years ago, what did the nomads of Central Asia fermented and what did it produce?
fermented horse mare's milk -> alcoholic beverage
35
when did alcoholic beverages get intentionally produced in China?
at least 9 000 years ago
36
what was the motivation to develop agriculture?
development of agriculture was based on the cultivation of grains to make beer, not bread
37
how many deaths are associated to alcohol consumption globally?
1 in 25 deaths
38
which part of the world has the highest proportions of deaths related to alcohol consumption and by how much?
Europe and 1 in 10 deaths
39
what enzymes are involved in the metabolism of EtOH?
alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH) and aldehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH)
40
what do the enzymes in EtOH metabolism do?
ADH (alcohol dehydrogenase) catalyzes the oxidation of EtOH into acetaldehyde
Acetaldehyde is then oxidized to acetic acid by ALDH
41
is acetic acid a toxic or non-toxic acetate?
non-toxic acetate
42
what are the 3 simple steps in the oxidation of alcohol?
EtOH -> acetaldehyde
acetaldehyde -> acetate
acetate -> CO2 + H2O
43
__ ___ in ADH and ALDH may protect against alcoholism
genetic polymorphism
44
which variant protects against alcoholism in East Asia? how about in Asia and Africa?
ALDH variants = East Asia
ADH variants = Asia and Africa
45
what does the reduction in the capacity of acetaldehyde clearance leads to in the ALDH2 variant?
leads to the accumulation of acetaldehyde in circulation
46
which Asian populations are the ALDH2 variant more prevalent?
Northeastern Asian populations like in China, Taiwan, Japan and Korea
47
which variant causes the 'Asian Alcohol Flushing Syndrome'?
ALDH2 variant
48
what characterizes the 'Asian Alcohol Flushing Syndrome'?
facial flushing
tachycardia (rapid heartbeat)
nausea
unpleasant feelings when alcohol is consumed
49
alcohol flushing + unpleasant feelings due to __ __ is often a strong deterrent against __ __ - especially for __
acetaldehyde accumulation, heavy drinking, homozygotes
50
what is the asian alcohol flush rxn?
red flushes or blotches on the face, neck and shoulders after consuming alcohol
51
what causes the asian alcohol flush rxn?
due to an accumulation of acetaldehyde in ALDH-deficient individuals
52
what are ALDH2 deficient populations more susceptible to?
more susceptible to the carcinogenic effect of consuming alcoholic beverages with most evidence coming from studies of esophageal, head and neck cancer
53
why do Asians with ALDH2 continue to drink?
heterozygotes can develop tolerance to acetaldehyde and the flushing response and can become habitual heavy drinkers
54
which countries accepts heavy drinking and alcohol problems? what is the reason behind this?
Korea, Japan and China
it is important, especially for men, to socialize and drink heavily that is why it is accepted
55
the increase of alcohol consumption in China has led to what?
increased incidence of alcoholic liver disease
56
humans may be evolving __ __ to make them physically unable consume large amounts of __
genetic variants, alcohol
57
the atypical __ allele offers some protection against __ dependence and the risk of __-__ cancers and accidents
ALDH2, alcohol, alcohol-related
58
what factors determine if heavy drinking is acceptable?
cultural, social, religious and genetics
59
what is the foundation of diet?
plants (F&V, grains)
60
which diets can be included in plant-based diets?
Pescatarian
Meditteranean
Semi-vegetarian
Flexitarian
61
what is the vegan diet?
eat plants but not animal flesh, eggs or dairy
62
what is the ovo-vegetarian diet?
eat plants and eggs
63
what is the lacto-vegetarian diet?
eat plants and dairy
64
what is the lacto-ovo-vegetarian diet?
eat plants, eggs and dairy
65
which religion in China and India promoted lacto-vegetarianism and what do they practice?
Buddhists = Practices metta and spiritual development (China and India)
Hinduism = Practices ahimsa and spiritual development (India)
66
what were the reasons why Ancient Greek philosophers promoted plant-based diets?
for health reasons and as an act of kindness towards animals
67
which religion in Europe and Ethiopia promoted plant-based diets during fasting for spiritual development?
Orthodox Christians
68
give some examples of plant-based meat analogues.
seitan = wheat gluten
tofu = soybean curd
tempeh = fermented soybeans
69
do vegetarian diets in East and SE Asian foods contain dairy?
mostly no
70
which religions in South Asia practice lacto-vegetarian diets?
Hindus, Buddhists and Sikhs
71
in Canada, what % of people eat meat or meat containing products daily, once or twice per week, monthly or less than monthly, and never?
daily = 48%
once or twice per week = 39%
monthly or less than monthly = 6%
never = 7%
72
which part of the population in Canada tend to be vegetarians?
young, female from upper socio-economic status
73
In Canada what % of youth and young adults (16-30 yrs old), practice vegetarian, pescatarian and vegan diet?
vegetarian = 6.6%
pescatarian = 4.5%
vegan = 2.5%
74
what are the top 3 reasons cited for eating a plant-based diet?
health & nutrition
environmental impact
animal welfare
75
unhealthy and environmentally unsustainable diets are both high in __, __ __, __ __, __ __ and __ __.
calories, added sugars, sat fat, processed foods, red meats
76
define healthy diet
healthy diet should optimize health, defined broadly by WHO as being a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being, and not just the absence of disease
77
define sustainable diet
sustainable diet should minimize climate change, biodiversity loss, land-system change, freshwater use and use of N2 and P fertilizers
78
what does the planetary plate made of?
50% F&V
50% whole grains, plant protein sources, unsaturated oils and optionally, modest amounts of animal protein
79
give examples of whole grains, plant protein sources and unsaturated oils
whole grains = wheat, rice, corn
plant protein sources= beans, lentils, nuts
unsaturated oils = olive, canola, soybean, sunflower, peanut
80
give some recommendations to change diet to be more plant-based
- meatless Mondays
- eat smaller portions of animal protein
- eliminate animal protein from some meals like lunch and breakfast
- adopt vegetarian versions of animal foods you like
81
what is meat?
the skeletal muscle and associated tissues harvested for human consumption from mammals, reptiles, amphibians and fish
82
what are the 4 types of meat?
red meat, white meat, fish = unprocessed meat
processed meat
83
what is red meat?
muscle from a mammal including beef, veal, venison, pork, lamb, mutton, horse and goat that has a [myoglobin] in the muscle fiber
84
what is white meat?
muscle of poultry
85
what is fish meat?
sometimes classified as white meat but is nutritionally distinct from poultry
86
what is processed meat?
meat that has been transformed through salting, curing, fermentation, smoking or other processes to enhance flavour or improve preservation
87
give examples of processed meats
ham, salami, bacon and some sausages such as frankfurters and chorizo
88
are humans carnivores, herbivores or omnivores?
omnivores
89
what essential nutrients does red meat provide?
niacin (B3), pyridoxine (B6), cobalamin (B12), Zn, Se, heme iron
90
how many aa does animal flesh contain and what does it do?
all 9 essential aa needed to make new protein in the body
91
what are the 3 classifications of aa?
non-essential = 11
essential = 9
conditionally essential = ~8
92
do all food proteins contain some amount of essential aa?
yes but gelatin is the exception
93
what are vegetal proteins?
vegetal proteins (plants, fungi) have limiting aa and are called incomplete proteins
94
what is a limiting aa?
essential aa that is present in the least amount relative to human requirements
95
what foods contains the limiting aa Lys?
cereal grains like wheat and rice
maize
96
what foods contain the limiting aas Met, Cys (sulfur aa)?
legumes
97
what foods contain the limiting aas Lys and Met?
tree nuts
varies by type but usually Lys and Met
98
what limiting aas are present in egg white, chicken, beef, fish and milk?
none therefore they are complete proteins
99
which cancer are associated with meat consumption?
colorectal
100
why is colorectal cancer associated with meat consumption?
Heme iron -> catalyze formation of free radicals in the gut, leading to cancer
Carcinogens from cooking -> when meat is cooked at high T, known carcinogens like polycyclic aromatics (PAHs) and heterocyclic aromatics (HCAs) are produced
101
what carcinogens are produced during the cooking of meat in high T?
polycyclic aromatics (PHAs)
heterocyclic aromatics (HCAs)
102
which important nutrients are in meat?
protein
niacin (B3)
pyridoxine (B6)
cobalamin (B12)
Zn
Se
Heme iron
103
where is heme iron found?
in hemoglobin (blood) and myoglobin (muscle)
104
what does heme iron in unprocessed meats lead to?
lead to the oxidation of LDL, causing fatty plaques and atherosclerosis
105
what does saturated fat in unprocessed meats do?
raises concentrations of TG and cholesterol levels, especially LDL-C, increasing the risk of atherosclerosis
106
what are the health risks of unprocessed meats?
heme iron, L-carnitine, saturated fat, Neu5Gc, carcinogen formation, high NaCl and sodium nitrite, N-nitroso compounds
107
which diseases are associated with red meat consumption?
colorectal cancer and CVD
108
what are the sugar in red meat called?
Neu5Gc
109
processed meat are high in what? what do they cause?
high in sodium chloride (table salt) and sodium nitrite
causes hypertension
110
how are N-nitroso compounds formed?
formed from nitrite (sodium nitrite) that is added to processed meats
111
give an example of a N-nitroso compound
nitrosamine
112
why are N-nitroso compounds added to meat?
preserve red/pink colour of meat
improve flavour by suppressing fat oxidation (going rancid)
suppress bacteria growth, reducing risk of food poisoning
113
what cancers are associated with N-nitroso compounds?
colon and stomach
114
what is the cancer prevention recommendation?
limit consumption of red meat to no more than 3 portions/week
3 portions = 350-500 g cooked weight
115
what are the 6 ethical concerns with raising animals for food?
billions of animal die or suffer to feed us
industrial farming leads to antibiotic resistance
ruminants like cow are responsible for greenhouse gas emissions
livestock produce vast amounts of waste
forests are cut down and grasslands are pastured to graze animals or to grow food for animals
zoonotic disease transmission occurs between livestock and humans
116
what can we do to reduce the negative impacts of producing and eating agricultural meat?
eat insects, plant-based diets, plant-based meat analogues, lab-grown (cultured) meat
low impact methods of livestock production
117
the __ ___of plant-based meats is lower than that of __ and __ and comparable to that of __ and other __
carbon footprint, beef, pork, chicken, poultry
118
the carbon footprint of cell-cultured meats is likely less __-__ than beef and could be comparable to chicken if produced with __ __
carbon-intensive, clean E
119
what are the 6 pros of using alternative meats for planetary health?
- reduced land use and deforestation
- protect biodiversity
- produce less air and water pollution
- mitigate the risks of antibiotic resistance and zoonotic pandemics
- lower public health burdens associated with red meat consumption
- reduced concerns about animal welfare
120
growing __ for food is more sustainable than growing __ or __ for food
insects, mammals, birds
121
what is entomophagy?
includes eating arthropods (true insects) and arthropods species (not insects) like spiders and scorpions
122
what does entomophagy not include?
does not include consumption of arthropods that are crustaceans such as lobsters, crabs and shrimp
123
what is cochineal?
cochineal extract or carmine is a colouring added to food like ice cream, yogurt, fruit drinks and cheese, or in pharmaceuticals and cosmetics
124
what colours are cochineal extract (carmine)?
pink, red or purple
125
what labels indicate that cochineal is present?
'colour added'
'carmine'
'E120'
'natural colour'
126
where is cochineal extract derived from?
from cochineal insect
127
what is shellac or confectioner's glaze?
an edible resin secreted from the lac insect (a scale insect)
128
what is shellac used for?
used as glazing agent on pills and candies, providing a shiny appearance and protecting food
129
is shellac permitted in Canada?
yes. it is permitted by Health Canada for cake decorations; unstandardized confectionery
130
what labels indicate that shellac is present?
'food additive E904'
'pharmaceutical glaze'
'confectioner's glaze'
131
where does Health Canada allow the use of beeswax?
used in unstandardized confectionery
132
what is royal jelly?
food produced by worker bees to feed young larvae and the queen
133
is royal jelly consumed by humans?
yes. it is used as a nutritional supplement
134
under what category does royal jelly fall under?
apitherapy
135
what is apitherapy?
alternative medicine that uses products from honeybees
136
what is chitin?
the exoskeleton of arthropods
137
is chitin soluble or insoluble fibre?
insoluble
138
what is chitosan?
deacetylated chitin
139
what is chitin and chitosan used for?
used as nutritional supplements for weight loss and cholesterol management
140
what aa are legumes low of? how about other plant foods?
legumes = low in Met
other plant foods = low in Lys
141
to get all nine essential aa from meals, what should we do?
combination of meals made from legumes and grains
142
what is the limited aa in beans and what protein should complement it?
limited aa = Met
complement = grains, nuts, seeds
143
what is the limited aa in grains and what protein should complement it?
limiting aa = Lys, Thr
complement = legumes
144
what is the limited aa in nuts/seeds and what protein should complement it?
limiting aa = Lys
complement = legumes
145
what is the limited aa in veggies and what protein should complement it?
limiting aa = Met
complement = grains, nuts, seeds
146
what is the limited aa in corn and what protein should complement it?
limiting aa = Trp, Lys
complement = legumes
147
what are lab grown meat?
cultured, cellular, in vitro meat
148
what is cellular meat?
animal protein grown from animal muscle cells (either embryonic or adult stem cells), through tissue culture in controlled lab conditions
149
what animal muscle cells are used to culture cellular meat?
embryonic or adult stem cells
150
why produce cultured meat?
offers a safe way to provide meat to a growing human population
151
give reasons to why we should produce cultured meat
- cellular agriculture is a stable and sustainable protein production system
- eliminates the need to kill animals
- reduces greenhouse emissions
- reduces deforestation
- reduces zoonotic diseases, possibly preventing global pandemics
152
what % of US consumers' are willing to try in vitro meat and had low/no willingness to try?
definite yes = 31.3%
probably yes = 34.2%
unsure = 11.7%
probably no = 12.6%
definite no = 8.5%
yes = 65.5%
no = 32.8%
153
from the survey on US consumers about in vitro meat, what thoughts were prevalent?
in vitro meat was unnatural and would negatively impact farmers
154
what are the nutritional transitions?
transition from low intake to high intake of foods
155
what foods are under high intake in nutrition transitions?
refined carbs, meat & dairy, ultra-processed foods, added & free sugars, Na, processed vegetable oils, omega-6 FA
155
what foods are under low intake in nutrition transitions?
legumes, nuts, seeds, F&V, whole & coarse grains, soluble & insoluble fibre
156
what were the modern traditional diets before nutrition transitions?
- mostly ate unprocessed or minimally processed foods that were grown, farmed or harvested locally
- plant-based diet with meat as an accent
- active living
- lower rates of chronic diseases
- vaccinations and sanitation practices reduced incidence of infectious diseases
- long life and long health expectancy
157
what are the 4 major cuisines in China?
Cantonese
Sichuan
Hunan
Beijing (Northern)
158
In China, what are the rates of heart disease, colon cancer, and diabetes and why?
low rates because they consume 1/3 less dietary fat than Americans
159
what carb source do southern vs northern Chinese prefer?
south = long grain rice
north = wheat noodles
160
in China, they drink tea with meals that is rich in __
antioxidants
161
what produce are included in the traditional Chinese diet and how much are consumed daily?
deep green cruciferous vegetables like Chinese broccoli, Chinese cabbage, bok choy, mustard greens
consume 1 lb/450 g daily
162
what do deep green cruciferous vegetables contain?
glucosinolates
163
what is a typical meal in Japan?
bowl of rice, soup, grilled fish, pickled vegetables, fruit for dessert
164
what type of rice do they prefer in Japan, China, Thailand and India?
Japan = short grain 'sticky' rice
China (South) = long grain rice
Thailand = glutinous rice
India = fragrant basmati rice
165
what are the 2 types of noodles in Japan?
soba = brown noodle made from buckwheat flour
udon = thick white noodle made from wheat flour
166
soybeans are high quality __
protein
167
what are soybean foods consumed in Asia?
edamame (fresh beans)
tempeh (fermented soybeans and grain)
tofu (soybean curd)
168
what is the FDA claim for soy?
foods high in soy protein may help lower heart disease risk
169
does Canada allow health claims about soy protein?
yes, by Health Canada
170
in Canada and US, foods containing what type of soy are eligible for the health claim of 'lowering heart disease risk'?
isolated soy protein (ISP)
soy protein concentrate (SPC)
textured soy protein (TSP)
soy flour (SF)
whole soybean
171
where is ISP, SPC, TSP and SF widely used in?
production of ultra processed foods
172
what flavours characterizes Thai cuisine?
often hot and spicy
173
Thai cuisine uses __ to fry food like China
wok
174
what kind of oils are used in ultra-processed foods in Thai foods?
partially hydrogenated oils
175
what is the smoke point of coconut oil?
high smoke point of 360°F
176
can you use coconut oil for high-heat cooking?
yes because it has a high smoke point
177
what happens to coconut oil because of its high saturated fat content?
slow to oxidize and resistant to rancidity
178
is coconut oil good for you?
no because it raises LDL which causes CVD to about the same degree as other lipids high in saturated fat
179
what other lipids are high in saturated fat that can raise LDL, causing CVD?
butter
beef fat and tallow
lard
palm oil
palm kernel oil
180
what foods are present in a Thai diet?
seafood, fresh F&V, rice and noodles
raw veggies in salads
many raw fruits served
181
what foods are present in Latin American - Mexican diet?
many foods of Aztec origin such as prickly pear cactus, chili pepper, avocado, beans, corn, tomatoes, squash, sweet potatoes, cocoa beans, peanuts, papayas
182
what is the focus of a meal in a Latin American - Mexican diet?
beans and rice along with corn tortilla
183
what lipid is used in Latin American - Mexican cooking?
lard (rendered pig fat) but may be replaced by vegetable oils
184
for tortillas, how long does the corn dough stay fresh?
only 6 hours
185
In Canada, Native American is a term that is not used. Instead, what do we use?
First Nations, Inuit and Metis
186
what is the Colombian Exchange?
transfer of animals, plants, culture, diseases, human populations, technology and ideas between the American and Afro-Eurasian hemispheres in the 15th and 16th century
187
what diseases were exchanged in the Columbian Exchange?
highly virulent diseases like measles and smallpox were introduced to the New World
188
what was the effect of the exchange of diseases during the Columbian Exchange?
decimated Indigenous populations because they had no immunity
189
which population was healthier, New World or European?
New World but due to their susceptibility to European disease, their populations decimated quickly
190
what is the New World vs European counterparts population?
New World = Americas
European counterparts = Europe, Africa and Asia
191
what livestocks were exchanged during the Columbian Exchange?
to the Old world (America to Europe) = turkeys
to the New world (Europe to America) = goats, sheep, cattle, pigs and chickens
192
what are the significant American crops?
grains = maize
roots, tubers = cassava, potato, sweet potato
legumes = peanut, lima beans, common beans (pinto, kidney, etc.)
fruits = tomato
melons = squash
vegetable = sweet and chilli peppers
others = vanilla, cocoa, sunflower
193
what are some cultural food adaptations?
- 'rice and beans' (Latin America)
- 'African' corn ugali
- 'Swiss' chocolate
- 'Irish' potato
- 'Thai' chili peppers
- 'Italian' tomato sauce
194
what was the Columbian Exchange?
the transfer of animals, plants, culture, disease, humans, technology and ideas between Americas and the Afro-Eurasia which took place in the 15th and 16th centuries.
195
which cash crops were bought from Europe to the New World?
sugar, grapes and coffee
196
which 9 calorically dense plants were transferred from the New World to the Old World?
bean
cassava
corn (maize)
chile pepper
peanut
potatoes
pumpkin squash
sweet potatoes
tomato
197
what was the result in Europe and Africa switching to calorically dense New World crops?
resulted in people being able to feed 3 times as many people
led to population increase in Europe and Africa
198
which European animals were brought to the New World?
cattle, sheep, pigs and horses
Spanish introduced goats and chickens
199
what did the Indigenous people view pigs as?
viewed them as pests and did not know what to do
200
before the arrival of Europeans, did the Indigenous peoples in the New World have zoonotic diseases? why or why not?
No because New World populations were healthier and never been exposed to 'insane diseases'
Because Europeans lived in close proximity to animals, when they arrived, they introduced highly virulent diseases like smallpox and measles.
these spread quickly because the Indigenous had no prior exposure, therefore, had no immunity to fight them off
201
what Spanish ingredients were introduced in the 16th century to Mesoamerican diets?
rice, wheat, sugar, dairy, cows, pigs, sheep, chicken
202
which Latin American countries has their food and drinks made from maize and corn dough?
Mexico, Nicaragua, El Salvador, Costa Rica
203
what is tortilla and what is it made of?
a daily staple in Mexico and many surrounding countries
made of corn or wheat flour - corn dough is shaped into flat tortillas
204
what is nixtamalization?
a traditional process used for preparing maize (corn) kernels
a process of taking dried maize, boiling and soaking it in an alkaline
205
what alkaline solution do they use in nixtamalization?
slaked lime or calcium hydroxide = Ca(OH)2
206
how do you make calcium hydroxide?
calcium carbonate + heat = CO2 + calcium oxide
calcium oxide + water = calcium hydroxide
207
what is masa?
softened maize (from nixtamalization process) that is grounded and formed into a soft dough
208
which foods uses masa?
tamales and tortillas
209
what is hominy?
nixtamal = whole hominy
whole corn becomes a hominy during the nixtamalization and masa process
210
what can you use hominy for?
eggs, toast and hominy grits
211
after whole corn becomes a masa, which dough is turned into a tortilla? how about masa flour?
becomes masa -> fresh/wet dough -> tortilla
becomes masa -> dried masa flour
212
what are the 5 results of nixtamalization?
- softens the corn for grinding
- allows dough formation
- makes the niacin bioavailable
- adds minerals
- removes aflatoxins
213
is niacin in corn biologically available to humans?
no
before nixtamalization, it exists as a bound form that is not biologically available to humans
214
what does niacin deficiency cause?
pellagra
215
how does pellagra occur and in which populations?
occurs in cultures that depend on corn which has not been nixtamalized as a dietary staples
216
what aa is maize low in?
Trp
217
Trp is a precursor of what?
precursor for niacin synthesis
218
what mineral is an important source of in maize and how does nixtamalization do this?
liming the maize is an important source of calcium
the calcium hydroxide process adds minerals and increases total amount of calcium in tortillas, increasing calcium absorption up to 25x than untreated ones.
219
the traditional method of lime treatment __ the amount of __ available for __
maximizes, calcium, absorption
220
what are aflatoxins?
harmful fungi
221
define Indigenous peoples using the United Nations definition
peoples who have historical continuity with pre-colonial and/or pre-settler societies that developed on their territories
consider themselves to have distinct social, economic or political systems, language, culture and beliefs
have strong linkages to territories and surrounding natural resources
form at present non-dominant groups of society
222
what are the 3 Indigenous peoples of Canada?
Inuit, First Nations, Metis
223
where can you find Inuits, First Nations and Metis?
Inuit = live across the Arctic
First Nation = on traditional lands coast-to-coast (half in cities, small towns and rural areas and the rest on reserves)
Metis = mostly Western Canada
224
Indigenous food systems of harvesting, cultivation, processing, storage, trade and consumption which are specific to __ __, and whose origins generally pre-date large-scale __ __.
geographic regions, industrial agriculture
225
Indigenous Food Systems
harvesting, cultivation and processing techniques are primarily __ or __-__, though such practices are subject to change over time
manual, non-industrial
226
what were the effects of hydro-electric projects on the environment?
- flooded traditional territories
- destroyed fish habitat
- disrupted fish spawning cycles and wild game migration routes
- contaminated fish with mercury
227
what were the effects of oil and gas extractions to the environment?
contaminated groundwater with toxic sands
228
what were the effects of roads built into the wilderness to the environment?
disrupted caribou migration, allowing hunters easier access to game
229
what were the effects of deforestation to the environment?
destroyed forest
230
what does replanting a single species in a deforested area do?
replanting deforested areas with a single species does not recreate a forest ecosystem
231
what are the effects of mining to the environment?
wastewater and air pollution
232
what are the effects of farming and urbanization to the environment?
traditional territories are no longer available and habitats are destroyed
233
what European diseases destroyed Indigenous communities?
measles, tuberculosis and smallpox
234
what happened to the Indigenous during the colonization of Indigenous peoples by Europeans in the 1800s?
colonizers displaced the Indigenous peoples and seized their traditional lands
235
what did the assimilation policies do to the Indigenous during the colonization of Indigenous peoples by Europeans in the 1800s?
included forced removal of children from their families
236
what happened to the Indigenous food systems during the colonization of Indigenous peoples by Europeans in the 1800s?
Indigenous food systems were disrupted or destroyed
237
cattle ranching __ habitat
destroys
238
why are healthy environments important to healthy eating?
a healthy environment is fundamental to healthy eating and the well-being of the community because traditional and customary hunting and gathering are a direct result of a healthy environment
239
healthy environment = __ __
healthy animals
240
what do they perceive when the environment is healthy?
healthy environment = healthy animals
healthy animals = healthy people
the community is only as healthy as the food they eat
241
which fat-soluble vitamins are in seal fat?
seal meat is rich in vit A and E
242
what harm might come to people who eat seal?
people who eat seal might be put in harm's way because pollutant and contaminants accumulate in the seal's organs
243
how is seal skin used?
used in the making of clothing in keeping with tradition, ensuring that very little is wasted
244
how is seal oil used?
the fat from seal is rendered down to create the highly prized oil
this oil is used as a condiment to flavour customary food and is also a valued trade item
245
how is a sense of community maintained?
maintained through sharing the bounty of the hunt
meat is shared with the community
oil is given away to tribal members
act of sharing the bounty of the hunt is as important as the hunt itself
246
before the mid-1800s, First Nations of the Canadian prairies lived __ lives, hunting the vast __ herds
nomadic, buffalo
247
what bisons are conserved in Elk Island National Park?
plains and wood bison
248
What is the Head-Smashed-In Buffalo Jump Interpretive Centre in Alberta?
A UNESCO designated world heritage site that preserves and interprets over 6000 yrs of plains buffalo culture
249
what happened to the plains buffalo in Canada and US in 1870?
they were killed for sport, profit (for fertilizers) and as a strategy to wipe out First Nations
250
what happened to the plains buffalo in the late 1800s?
nearly became extinct due to commercial hunting, slaughter and bovine diseases form domestic cattle
251
how many bisons remained in the late 1800s?
as low as 541
252
due to the fear of starvation because of the low population of bison, what did the First Nations do?
agreed to sign a series of treaties during 1870
253
what did the First Nations believed when they signed the treaties?
believed they would be considered as equal nations
254
what did the first Indian Act declared?
declared all First Nations to be wards of the state
255
in the subsequent years, what happened to the Indian Act?
was expanded to promote assimilation
256
what did Canada's first prime minister, Sir John A. MacDonald, do to the Indigenous people?
deliberately starved thousands of Indigenous people to clear a path for the Canadian Pacific Railroad and open the prairies to European settlement
257
modern Canada is founded upon __ __ and __
ethnic cleansing, genocide
258
Nutrition Transition Among Indigenous Peoples In Canada
__ procurement of food from local food system
reduced
259
Nutrition Transition Among Indigenous Peoples In Canada
__ sedentariness/inactiveness
increased
260
Nutrition Transition Among Indigenous Peoples In Canada
__ stewardship of the land
decreased
261
Nutrition Transition Among Indigenous Peoples In Canada
__ from cultural practices
disconnection
262
Nutrition Transition Among Indigenous Peoples In Canada
traditional foods replaced with __ __ and __ foods, many of which are of __ nutritional value and pose significant __ __
domesticated animals, market, poor, health risks
263
Nutrition Transition Among Indigenous Peoples In Canada
__ inadequacies and excess intake of __, __ and __ __
micronutrient, sugar, sodium, saturated fat
264
what diseases were seen during Nutrition Transition Among Indigenous Peoples In Canada?
obesity
coronary artery disease
hypertension
type II diabetes
dental carries
265
Nutrition Transition Among Indigenous Peoples In Canada
lower __ expectancy
life
266
Nutrition Transition Among Indigenous Peoples In Canada
from __ grains to __ grains
whole, refined
267
Nutrition Transition Among Indigenous Peoples In Canada
from __ game to __ animals
wild, domesticated
268
what are the nutritional contents of domesticated animals?
more total fat and SFA
less PUFA and MUFA
lower amounts of micronutrients like iron
269
what is the main cause of marginalization of Indigenous peoples globally?
derived from the violation of their right to their traditional land and territories, therefore, to their food sovereignty
270
which foods did the Spanish introduce to the region?
wheat bread, dairy products and sugar
livestocks such as cattle, pigs, sheep and chickens
271
before the arrivals of the Spanish in Latin America, would lard have been added to beans? Why or why not?
No
Lard comes from pigs and the Spanish introduced pigs during the colonial period
272
prior to the arrival of Spanish, would cheese have been eaten in Latin America? why or why not?
no because dairy products were introduced by the Spanish during colonial times
273
what is another name for cilantro?
coriander leaves
274
which two staple foods are often eaten together in Latin American diet?
corn (maize) and beans (frijoles)
275
which 2 grains are used to make the flat bread called 'tortilla'?
generally made from maize (corn)
In northern Mexico, can be made from wheat flour
276
what is the purpose of soaking maize in a lime-water solution or also known as nixtamalization?
soaking softens the maize so it can be grounded to form a masa (soft dough)
277
how does liming change the maize's nutritional content?
makes niacin (B3) more bioavailable
process is an important source of calcium, increasing calcium absorption
traditional preparation adds iron and zinc to tortilla
helps remove aflatoxins (harmful fungi)
278
why did poor Italian peasants in the 1800s suffer from pellagra?
because they were living on a diet made up of almost just corn (polenta)
without additional of veggies, dairy or meat during winter, resulted in deficiency of niacin and Trp
279
what is pellagra?
severe niacin (B3) deficiency
280
what are the 4D's associated with pellagra?
dermatitis
diarrhea
dementia
death
281
why did poor Italian women suffer more from pellagra than poor Italian men?
because they had increased nutritional needs due to pregnancy and breastfeeding
also, their inferior social position meant less food than men
282
why does nixtamalization prevent pellagra?
because the process increases the bioavailability of bound niacin in corn
converts bound niacin to a water-soluble, free compound, allowing it to be absorbed by the gut
283
when people eat large quantities of unprocessed corn, why does having a mixed diet prevent pellagra?
pellagra is a nutritional deficiency illness
a mixed, well-balance diet prevents pellagra because of the addition of fresh, varied produce
284
what is niacin?
also known as vitamin B3, a water-soluble B vitamin
functions as a coenzyme that is essential for lots of enzymes in the body, helping to convert nutrients into E, create and repair DNA, and exert antioxidant effects
285
what is the relationship between niacin and Trp?
body can convert Trp to nicotinamide which is a common form of niacin
1 mg niacin = 60 mg Trp
286
why do people develop pellagra if they have a corn-based diet and eat little else?
corn is low in both absorbable niacin and the precursor aa, Trp
niacin present in corn is bound to carbohydrates, making it difficult for the body to absorb
287
why does eating corn with calcium hydroxide prevent pellagra?
treating corn with calcium hydroxide prevents pellagra because it causes niacin to become absorbable by the body
calcium hydroxide removes the niacin from the carbohydrates to which it was bound, making it water-soluble
288
what are calves and heifers?
young cows
289
1 million cows produce __ litres of milk per year
10 billion
290
how much does dairy farming contribute to Canada's GDP?
contribute $28 billion
291
on an average Canadian dairy farm, how many milking cows are there>
100
292
when do cows produce milk?
when they are an adult after they give birth
293
how are cows fed?
fed twice a day from commodity bins which contain corn, barley and other grains
294
explain the Parlour Milking process
- cow is clean and good for milking
- inspect each quarter and gently strip the milk out to make sure the milk is of high quality
- take a cloth and sanitize each teat
- take milking machine and hook it into the cow's teats
- milk goes straight into milk tank
295
what is the milk tank?
tank that cools milk within the first 5 minutes and stores it at 0-4 degrees C until milk truck picks up the milk
296
how many times a day and how long do cows get milked?
5-7 minutes 2-3x/day every day
297
what are shelter belts?
tree lines that help protect from wind erosion and heavy rainfalls that washes away nutrients
298
calves are born with a __ __ __
low immune system
299
to take care of calves, what do dairy farmers provide them?
hutches to provide shelter
coats in the winter to stay warm
300
how big typically is a cow herd?
50-100 cows
301
cows who are __ and __ produce more __ than those who are __ or __
calmer, healthy, milk, stressed, sick
302
what is the usual diet of cows?
hay, corn, wheat, alfalfa and barley
303
what are the 3 types of milking systems?
parlour
pipeline
automated system
304
what is the automated milking system?
cows milk themselves because the cows can set their own routine such as when and how often they want to be milked
305
it is important for barns to have what for the cow's living environment?
fresh and clean air
controlled humidity
curtains to protect cows from direct sun heat
306
what happens to cows in the winter?
they eat more and produce more milk
307
what is the body T of a cow?
38 degrees C
308
what is a cow's bedding like?
thick bedding made of recycled rubber or water beds
add straws, sand or straw dust for warmth and dryness
309
cows rest __ hours per day
9-12
310
when are cow pedicures done and why are they done?
twice a year and done to keep cows healthy and comfortable when walking
311
Canadian milking cows produce how much litres of milk per day? How about super cows?
milking cows = 35 L per day
super cows = 50-60 L per day
312
why is milk stored in bulk tank at 0-4 degrees C?
prevent growth of bacteria
313
what happens when milk truck comes pick up milk?
- samples milk by visual inspection and smell
- measure how much milk is in the tank
- check milk T
- take milk sample for traceability
314
what is the purpose of milk sample taken by truck driver?
if antibiotic residue is found in the milk tank when brought to the processing facility, they can use samples to track to which farm caused the positive test and fine a penalty
315
if a cow is sick, their milk is __
discarded
316
what is given to cows to provide them a boost of energy?
electrolytes or dextrose
317
what is given to cows when they are sick?
antibiotics prescribed by a vet
318
how are cows treated with antibiotics identified?
through coloured bands
319
what do the coloured bands on the cows represent?
they are treated with antibiotics therefore, they need to be milked separately and their milk does not go into the bulk tank
320
if milk has antibiotic residue, can you make cheese or yogurt out of it? why or why not?
no because they use a culture of good bacteria
antibiotics will block the culture from forming these products
321
what is another name for AGH?
artificial growth hormones or recombinant bovine somatotropin (rBST)
322
what is rBST?
illegal compound in Canada
not available for purchase or sale and cannot be prescribed by any vet in Canada
323
what are the 6 pillars of the proaction program?
quality
food safety
animal care
traceability
biosecurity
environment
324
Canadian dairy cows account for __ of Canada's total GHG emissions
1.3%
325
what are ways that dairy farms try to improve GHG emissions?
- optimize cow feed
- improved crop practices
- protecting biodiversity
- produce more food with less resources through innovation and genetics
- invest in research and innovation
326
cows are __
ruminants
327
what is manure?
animal feces that provide organic nutrients and feeds it to the soil that grows the crops
328
what green technologies do farms invest on for more sustainable farming?
solar panels, wind turbines and biodigesters
329
what are biodigesters?
machine that extract methane from manure and food waste to produce renewable E
330
how does a biodigester work?
a big vat (38 degrees C = cow's body T) stirs manure and food waste -> simulates stomach of a cow
331
how many tonnes of food waste per year is added to the manure for the biodigester?
8 000 tonnes
332
how many tonnes of organic waste is processed every year?
300 000 tonnes
333
what is a circular economy?
farm produces food -> food enters city to be sold to people -> food waste from people comes back to farm for bedding, fertilizer, feed, etc
334
CH4 has __ global warming potential than __
25-28%, CO2
335
methane is a __-__ gas in the atmosphere
short-lived
336
CO2 takes __ __ __ to dissipate into the atmosphere
thousands of years
337
where is methane generated in the cow?
in the rumen (first stomach) in the digestive tract
338
how is methane produced?
produced by archaea as an end product of fermentation process where they break down fibre which is indigestible by humans
339
how is methane released by cows?
mostly when they burp, very little from fart
340
when humans consume food, __ is the end product during __ process
CO2, respiration
341
when cows consume feed, __ is end product during __ process
CH4, anaerobic
342
what is biogenic C?
a short term C
was previously in the grass consumed by cow and microbes in the ruminants convert it into CH4 and released into the atmosphere
343
what is fossil C?
ancient C
344
methane acts as a final __ __ which leads to the degradation of grass
e- acceptor
345
Canadian dairy makes up __ of global greenhouse has emissions
0.001%
346
methane is a byproduct of __ from the activity of bacteria in the __
rumination, rumen
NU FS 223
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