1
Q
Erythr/o
A
Red
2
Q
Leuk/o
A
White
3
Q
Hem/o
A
Blood
4
Q
Thromb/o
A
Clot
5
Q
Granul/o
A
Small grain/granule
6
Q
Cyt/o
A
Cell
7
Q
Neutr/o
A
Neutral
8
Q
Eosin/o
A
Red/orange dye
9
Q
Bas/o
A
Base
10
Q
Lymph/o
A
Lymph
11
Q
Mon/o
A
Single
12
Q
Oste/o
A
Bone
13
Q
Aden/o
A
Gland
14
Q
Splen/o
A
Spleen
15
Q
Tonsill/o
A
Tonsils
16
Q
Hist/o
A
Tissue
17
Q
Theli/o
A
Covering surface
18
Q
Reticul/o
A
Network
19
Q
Medull/o
A
Inner region
20
Q
Cortic/o
A
Outer layer
21
Q
Immun/o
A
Immune
22
Q
Phag/o
A
Eat
23
Q
Epi-
A
Upon/over
24
Q
-cyte
A
Cell
25
-globin
Protein
26
-phil
Attracted to
27
-oid
Resembling
28
-megaly
Enlarged
29
-etomy
Excision/Removal
30
-ary
Pertaining to
31
-osis
Condition
32
What is the general composition of blood plasma?
Plasma: 55%
Erythrocytes: 44%
Buffy coat: <1%
33
What is albumin? Where is in made? What does it help maintain?
most common plasma protein, Made by the liver, helps maintain osmotic pressure of the blood, it binds to water very easily, hence allows high level of solubility of substance in the blood thus assisting in their transport
34
What are the 3 groups of globulin? What is their function?
there are three globulin groups in the plasma: alpha, beta, and gamma. The alpha (α) and beta (β) globulins function as transport molecules, clotting factors, and inactive precursor molecules. They are produced by the liver and other organs.
35
What are electrolytes? What are some examples?
The electrolytes represent the wide array of soluble ions in the plasma.
Important examples of electrolytes are: Na+ , K+ , Ca++, Mg++ , HCO3 - , and PO4 -3 . Each of these ions has particular functions and organs that regulate the functions.
36
What is the function of Ca2+?
functions include: muscle contraction, action potential transmission, bone and teeth structure, activation of oocytes, blood clotting etc
37
What is the function of Na+?
functions include: maintenance of blood volume, transmission of nerve impulses, and many other metabolic functions
38
What is the function of K+?
functions include: creation of the resting potential, participation in the sodium-potassium pump, maintenance of intracellular fluid balance, muscle contraction, heart contraction, and many others. Too little potassium in the blood can be caused by diarrhea, vomiting, and increased diuresis. This is a potentially fatal condition causing a breakdown of the resting potential and depolarization in excitable cells. Symptoms include: muscle weakness and spasticity, heart arrhythmia, respiratory paralysis, alkalosis, seizure, and coma.
39
What is the function of Mg2+?
functions include: nucleic acid synthesis, cofactor for many enzymes, ATP synthesis and usage, DNA and RNA synthesis
40
What is the function of HCO3-?
This ion represents the amount of soluble CO2 in the blood. It is produced by an important enzyme in the red blood cell: carbonic anhydrase.
41
What is a normal fasting levels of glucose?
less than 100mg/dL.
42
What is another name for red blood cells?
Erythrocytes
43
What are the types of white blood cells? What are their subgroups?
Granulocytes- neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils
Agranulocytes- Lymphocyte, monocyte
44
What is the shape of red blood cells?
Biconcave disk; increases available surface area and flexibility to be carried through capillaries (site of oxygen exchange).
45
T or F
Red blood cells have organelles.
F
46
What is the content in red blood cells?
Mainly hemoglobin and some enzymes, notable are those to carry out glycolysis, and those that convert CO2 to HCO3 - (carbonic anhydrase).
47
Where is red bone marrow found in adults?
vertebrae, pelvis, ribs, and sternum
48
What is reticulocytosis? What is the normal percentage? How does reticulocytes enter the blood circulation?
A condition characterized by an increased number of reticulocytes
are premature red blood cells. The normal percentage of reticulocytes is 0.5% to 1.5%.
An increased number of reticulocytes in peripheral blood is an important indication of hemolysis (red blood cell rupture) or bleeding.
enter the blood circulation through the bone marrow sinusoidal capillaries and become mature erythrocytes in one or two days. Mature erythrocytes have neither nuclei nor organelles and appear as a biconcave disk.
49
What happens with blood loss anemia?
usually increases erythropoietin production, which in turn causes the bone marrow to produce more red blood cells, resulting in a reticulocyte percentage of above 4% to 5%.
50
What is hemolytic anemia?
Mostly genetic- thalassemia or sickle cell anemia- Sickle cell anemia is caused by a homozygous mutation causing an amino acid substitution in the hemoglobin molecule, which renders the mature RBCs deformed and slightly rigid and can lead to capillary blockage. In thalassemia, the body makes an abnormal type of hemoglobin.
51
What is deficiency anemia?
deficiency of iron for example results in poor production of Heme- hence less RBCs can carry O2 efficiently.
52
What do leukocytes do?
migrate to various tissues where they perform various immune related activities.
All WBCs have surface receptors that allow them to bind to endothelial cells and migrate to tissues outside the blood channels
53
When do neutrophils move into the tissue?
don’t move into the tissues unless there is infection or acute inflammation, but eosinophils, basophils, and monocytes constantly enter the tissues
54
What kind of organelles do granulocytes have?
Granulocytes have few mitochondria and they depend largely on glycolysis for their energy needs.- they have very little golgi and ER
55
Which white blood cells divide furthers and which ones don’t?
All granulocytes are terminal cells; that is, they will never again divide because they have lost that capacity during differentiation. Monocytes and lymphocytes have the potential for further division.
56
Neutrophil
Lifespan?
Nucleus Histology?
Function?
Color of granules?
Tissue interaction?
Terminal cells?
Lifespan: 1-4 days
Nucleus Histology: 3-5 lobed polymorphonuclear
Function: Kills & phagocytoses bacteria
Color of granules: lytic enzymes
Tissue interaction?
Terminal cells: yes
57
Eosinophils
Lifespan?
Nucleus Histology?
Function?
Color of granules?
Tissue interaction?
Terminal cells?
Lifespan: 1-4 weeks
Nucleus Histology: Bilobed
Function: worm infection
Color of granules: pink hydrolysis enzyme
Tissue interaction: Interact w/ blood walls of endothelial cells
Terminal cells: yes
58
Basophils
Lifespan?
Nucleus Histology?
Function?
Color of granules?
Tissue interaction?
Terminal cells?
Lifespan: 7 months
Nucleus Histology: Bilobed
Function: Releasing histamine
Color of granules: purple/blue
Tissue interaction?
Terminal cells: yes
59
Monocytes
Lifespan?
Nucleus Histology?
Function?
Color of granules?
Tissue interaction?
Terminal cells?
Lifespan: 3-4 days in blood then in tissues
Nucleus Histology: C/S shaped
Function: immune defense & tissue repair
Color of granules: pink
Tissue interaction: Chronic inflammation results in continuous recruitment of monocytes- major tissue damage
Terminal cells: no
60
Lymphocytes
Lifespan?
Nucleus Histology?
Function?
Color of granules?
Tissue interaction?
Terminal cells?
Lifespan?
Nucleus Histology: large nucleus
Function: learn about environment
Color of granules: blue
Tissue interaction: lymphatic organs
Terminal cells: no
61
Compare and Contrast
Basophils vs. Mast Cells
Basophils:
- Circulate the blood come & go
- Bilobed nucleus
Mast Cells:
- Live in the tissue
- Single large nucleus
Both:
- Born in bone marrow
- Degranulate
- Mask the nucleus
62
What are the Primary and Secondary structures?
Primary structures:
- Thyme
- Red bone marrow
Secondary structures:
- Tonsils
- Lymph nodes (cervical)
- Lymph nodes (axillary)
- Spleen
- MALT in small intestine (Tonsils, Adenoids, Peyer’s patches & Lymph aggregates)
- Lymph nodes (inguinal)
- Spleen
63
What is the function of the innate immune system?
Effective against pathogens that have remained unchanged during the course of evolution.
Is useless against newly formed pathogens formed as a result of recent mutations.
64
What are some examples of innate immune defenses in the skin?
Skin is an impermeable barrier against air and water borne pathogens.
65
What are some examples of innate immune defenses in the mucous membrane?
They can trap the foreign antigens and prevent them from invading the body tissues.
66
What are some examples of innate immune defenses for antibacterial substances?
Lysozyme is in tears and saliva.
67
What is the function of innate immune system?
Eliminate pathogenic bacteria, fungi, parasites, even potentially tumorigenic cells
68
What is the function of adaptive immune system?
• Slower in response
• Builds gradually with exposure to microorganisms
• More specific to its target, but very diverse in its range of targets
• Ability to distinguish self from non-self
• Has immunological memory
• Components: B lymphocytes, T lymphocytes
69
What do B lymphocytes secretes?
Antibodies
70
Why do B lymphocytes antibodies bind to antigens?
Neutralize them and promote phagocytosis
71
How does T lymphocytes help B lymphocytes? What do T lymphocytes? What is the function?
Help B cells make antibodies
Activate phagocytes
Kill infected cells and stop spread of infection
72
Where do B and T lymphocytes originate from?
In the bone marrow
73
What is the maturation process of B cells?
Originate and undergo initial antigen independent maturation process in the bone marrow, migrate to secondary lymphoid tissue for antigen dependent maturation process. B cells are also called as plasma cells- they produce antibodies.
74
What is the maturation process of T cells?
Born in the bone-marrow - migrate to the thymus (their they are called thymocytes) - proliferation and maturation in thymus. Mature T cells will leave thymus - populate secondary lymph tissues or re-circulate in the blood
75
What lymphocyte is in the Thymus?
T Lymphocytes
76
What lymphocytes percentage is in the bone marrow?
10% T Lymphocytes and 90% B Lymphocytes
77
What lymphocytes percentage is in the spleen?
45% T Lymphocytes and 55% B Lymphocytes
78
What lymphocytes percentage is in the lymph nodes?
60% T Lymphocytes and 40% B Lymphocytes
79
What lymphocytes percentage is in the blood?
70% T Lymphocytes and 30% B Lymphocytes
80
What are the characteristics of the bone marrow?
• Major hematopoietic organ
• Highly cellular tissue- produces all types of blood cells
• Contains sinusoids, adipose cells, reticular conn. tissue, hematopoietic stem cells
81
What is the function of Thymic epithelial cells (TEC)? When is the Thymus activated?
mechanical support framework, secrete hormones
Thymus is most active during childhood, reaches a weight of about 30-40 g at puberty after which it undergoes slow involution
82
What is the functions of the Thymus?
• Secretion of hormones and cytokines that regulate T cell maturation, proliferation, and function within the thymus and peripheral lymphoid tissues (thymulin, thymopoietin, and various thymosins)
83
What does the thymic cortex look like>
Basophilic purple lymphoblasts- immature lymphocytes are called lymphoblasts.
Notice that the TECs have large lighter nucleus compared to the lymphoblasts that have small- darer nucleus.
84
When does the Hassall’s corpuscle appear?
In fetal life and increase in number and size thereafter. These are formed from groups of keratinized TECs and may represent a degenerative phenomenon.
85
Where do the B cells mature? Where do the matured B cells found?
The B cells mature in the germinal center (lighter center) of the cortex. The matured B cells are found on the periphery of the cortex. (darker).
86
What does it mean when the lymph nodes get enlarged?
Infection
87
What is the function of each node?
•Each node acts like a filter to trap any microbes and antigens that are brought by the afferent lymph vessel
88
Where does the artery and vein enter and exit through?
Hilum
89
What is the function of the spleen?
• Immunological responses against blood-borne antigens
• Removal of particulate matter and aged/ defective blood cells
90
What does MALT stand for?
Mucosa associated lymphoid tissue
CFS-6250
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