1
Q
Two groups of organs of digestion and their functions
A
Primary – the organs through which food passes
Accessory – the organs that contribute to digestion but food does not pass through them
2
Q
Primary organs of digestion: and the pathway of food through the body from top to bottom
A
Mouth Pharynx Esophagus Stomach Duodenum (small intestine) Ileum (small intestine) Jejunum (small intestine) Ascending colon (large intestine) Transverse colon (large intestine) Descending colon (large intestine) Sigmoid colon (large intestine) - named for its S shape Rectum Anus
3
Q
Organs that play a role in digestion but food does not pass through them
A
Accessory organs of digestion
4
Q
Accessory organs of digestion, and their function
A
Liver - makes bile
Gallbladder - stores bile
Pancreas - makes digestive enzymes
5
Q
What is bile?
Where is it created, where is it stored
A
A detergent, aids in digestion
Created in liver, stored in gallbladder
6
Q
Mouth
A
- digestion begins in the mouth, and is both mechanical and chemical in nature
- mechanical because you chew your food (teeth)
- Chemical because there is an enzyme called salivary amylase that is released and creates carbohydrate digestion
7
Q
Functions of saliva in the mouth
A
– make food softer
– Begin chemical digestion
– Kill bacteria
8
Q
Sets of teeth:
A
- Deciduous – first appear at about six months “baby teeth/primary teeth”
- Permanent – first appear at about six years
9
Q
Types of teeth
A
- Incisors – located at the front of the mouth, with a sharp biting surface. Used for cutting or shearing food into small chewable pieces
There are 8 incisors in both primary and permanent dentitions. - Canines – located at the corners of the dental arches, have a sharp, pointed biting surface. Their function is to grip and tear food.
There are four canine teeth in both primary and permanent dentitions. - Premolars – unlike incisors and canines have a flat biting surface, their function is to tear in crush food. (Grinding.) they are unique to the permanent dentition, which has 8 premolars
- Molars – largest of the teeth, have a large flat biting surface. The function of the molars are to crush chew and grind food. There are 8 molars in the primary dentition, and 12 in the permanent dentition.
10
Q
Dental formula for children and adults (and example numbers.)
In the example what is the total number of deciduous teeth and permanent teeth in the mouth?
A
Children: 2 (incisors) - 1 (canine) - 0 (premolars) - 2 (molars)
Adults: 2 (incisors) - 1 (canine) - 2 (premolars) - 3 (molars)
This dental formula tells you how many of each of these are in 1/4 of your mouth.
So to get the total number of teeth in a persons mouth you have to multiply each number by four.
So multiplying by four, the number of deciduous teeth in this dental formula would be 20. The number of permanent teeth in this formula would be 32.
11
Q
What is plaque, and why is that a problem?
A
– Plaque is a soft sticky film of sugar, bacteria, and other mouth debris that adheres to the teeth
Plaque can cause tooth decay and gum disease if not removed regularly through brushing and flossing.
Plaque is a problem because it can digest tooth enamel. Acid eats away at the tooth enamel, repeated attacks cause the enamel to break down eventually resulting in a cavity
12
Q
The esophagus
A
The esophagus is a muscular tube about 10 inches in length
Connects the throat(pharynx) to the stomach
– It takes 4-8 seconds to move food (known as a bolus) through the esophagus.
13
Q
The stomach
A
– The stomach is the part of the digestive tract in which most digestion of food occurs
It is a pear-shaped enlargement of the alimentary canal(or the digestive tract) that links the esophagus to the small intestine
-in the stomach you’ll find both mechanical and chemical digestion. Mechanical is the churning of food. Chemical digestion is when enzymes are secreted and help digest the food.
14
Q
Where is most food absorbed?
Why?
A
- in the small intestine
- because it is about 21 feet long and is adapted to absorption
15
Q
Where do we produce the digestive juices that empty into the small intestine?
A
In the pancreas in the liver (accessory organs)
16
Q
What are the functions of the large intestine?
A
– Absorb water
– Produce vitamins like B12 and vitamin K
17
Q
Why are there bacteria in the large intestine?
A
To break down wastes and to produce vitamins
18
Q
Two classes of vitamins
A
– Fat soluble: A, D, E, K
– water soluble: all the others
19
Q
Can we take too many vitamins?
A
Yes, especially the fat-soluble. Because they remain in the body fat, and are not washed out like water soluble vitamins are.
20
Q
Diseases and disorders of the digestive tract
A
– food poisoning
– Diverticulosis
– Anorexia
– Bulimia
21
Q
Food poisoning
Most common type, symptoms, how long they last, when they appear
A
- most common type is salmonella, a bacterium. Invades intestinal wall.
– Symptoms include headache, muscle aches, diarrhea, nausea and vomiting, chills, fever, and dehydration
– Symptoms last from 24 hours to 12 days - Symptoms appear 6 to 72 hours after ingestion
22
Q
How is food poisoning spread?
A
- Contaminated chicken (most common)
- Contaminated eggs
- Feces: contaminated hands of food handlers
23
Q
Diverticulosis
Who is most commonly affected
A
– is a condition in which there are abnormal saclike pouches in the intestinal wall; the pouches do not cause symptoms unless they have trapped food in bacteria have invaded. The condition is diverticulosis and the condition with infection of the abnormal pouches is diverticulitis. Together these are called diverticular disease.
- painless unless bacteria invade (diverticulosis)
- when bacteria invade it is called diverticulitis
- it is most common with low fiber diets, and usually affects those over 50 years of age
24
Q
Foods to avoid with diverticulitis
A
– any food with seeds; tomatoes, cucumbers, corn, strawberries, nuts
25
Anorexia and bulimia statistics
90% who suffer are females
10% are males
Affects all socioeconomic groups
26
Factors that contribute to anorexia and bulimia
– A family that is tightly enmeshed
– Overprotective parents
– Rigid family values
– A family that avoids conflict at all costs
– Genetic, biochemical, psychological, cultural and environmental.
– There is a greater emphasis on a female's appearance then a males appearance
27
What percentage of those with anorexia are men?
10%
28
Symptoms of anorexia
```
– Claiming to feel fat when they're not
– Preoccupation with food and calories
– Denial of hunger
– Excessive exercising
– Frequent weighing
– Loss of menstrual period
– Strange food related behavior
– Weight loss of 25% below normal
– Hair loss
– Rigid
– Perfectionists
– Low self-esteem
```
29
What is bulimia?
Bulimia is a serious, potentially life-threatening eating disorder characterized by a cycle of binging and compensatory behaviors such as self-induced vomiting designed to compensate for the effects of binge eating.
30
Co-occurring conditions with bulimia:
– Self injury (cutting and Other forms of self harm without suicidal intention)
– Substance abuse
– Impulsivity (risky sexual behavior's, shoplifting, etc.)
31
Symptoms of bulimia
```
– Normal weight
– Constant concern with weight and body image
– Low self-esteem
– Poor impulse control
– use of laxatives and diuretics
– High carbohydrate intake
– 5-10,000 calories/binge
– Binging and purging
– Sore throat
– Dehydration
– Irregular heart rhythms
– Depression
– anemia
– G.I. disorders
– Tooth damage
```
32
Effects of bulimia
– Cancer
| – Oralpharyngeal trauma due to blunt instrument used to induce vomiting
33
What is syrup of ipecac?
What does that have to do with bulimia?
Is it dangerous, and why?
A chemical used to induce vomiting
It is often used to induce vomiting after binging
Yes it is dangerous, because it can accumulate in the heart and cause a lethal arrhythmia
34
What composes the cardiovascular system
1. Heart
2. Blood
3. Blood vessels: veins, arteries, capillaries
35
Pathway of blood:
```
O= oxygenated blood
D= deoxygenated blood
```
```
Superior and inferior vena cava (D) >
Right atrium (D) >
Right ventricle (D) >
Pulmonary arteries (D) >
Lungs (oxygen will be picked up and carried back into the left side of the heart) >
Pulmonary veins (O) >
Left atrium (O) >
Left ventricle (O) >
Aorta (O) >
Body
```
After blood goes out to the body the cycle is complete and begins again in the superior and inferior vena cava
36
Functions of the blood
– Carries oxygen to the tissues
– Carries hormones to the tissues
– Carries wastes from the cells
– Carries nutrients to the cells from the digestive tract
– Carries white blood cells to infections
– Distributes heat
– Maintains pH
37
Blood makes up what percent of the body's weight?
8%
38
What makes up blood?
– Plasma: the liquid part of blood
| – Formed elements: the solid parts of blood
39
Blood plasma
The liquid part of blood
– Yellow or straw colored, sticky
– Contains the formed elements?
– Contains over 100 different solutes including: hormones, wastes, ions, proteins(most abundant)
40
Formed elements from blood
Erythrocytes: Red blood cells; Carry oxygen
Leukocytes: white blood cells; fight infection
Thrombocytosis: platelets; clotting
41
Composition of blood in percentages
54% of blood is plasma
45% of blood is red blood cells
1% of blood is white blood cells and platelets
42
How can we measure the values of blood composition?
With a hematocrit
43
What is a hematocrit?
We separate the formed elements from the plasma and measure both
44
How is a hematocrit done?
1. Draw blood
2. Collect the blood in a capillary tube
3. Place the capillary tube in a centrifuge and spin
4. Spinning the tube at a high rate separates formed elements from the plasma--- step 4 allows us to read the capillary tube and report % of red cells.
45
Sickle cell anemia
| Gets its name from ?
- get its name because the red blood cells take on a sickle shape and do not function as they should
Genetic disorder and is carried as an autosomal recessive trait, if you have two parents who are unaffected they are known as carriers if they carry the gene for this trait but do not have it themselves.
- if these two parents marry and have children, they will have a one in four chance of having a child with sickle cell anemia, a 2 in 4 chance of having a Child who is a carrier but unaffected like themselves, and a one in four chance of having an unaffected child
46
Normal hematocrit values
The average: 45%
Females: 36–40%
Males: 40 –50%
Percent of red blood cells
Females have less bc they tend to eat less meat and have a menstrual cycle
47
Diseases of the blood
Causes?
```
– Anemias
– Polycythemia
– Leukemia
– Mononucleosis
– Hemophilia
```
Causes: genes, disease, side effects of medicines, and a lack of certain nutrients in your diet.
48
Anemia cause
Different anemias
Cause: too few red blood cells or abnormal hemoglobin
– Iron deficient
– B 12 deficient
– Hemorrhagic
– Sickle cell
49
Iron deficient anemia
Causes
Treatments, problems with treatments, solutions with problems with treatments
Causes: usually results from inadequate intake of iron containing foods, can also be due to poor iron absorption
Treatment: iron supplements
Problem with supplements: stomach irritation
Solution: take with largest meal
50
B12 deficient anemia
Also known as
Causes
Treatment
– It is also known as pernicious anemia. B12 is present and eggs, milk, meat, poultry and fish
Causes: diet is rarely the problem, except for strict vegetarians. Usually the problem is lack of intrinsic factor which is produced by the stomach. Intrinsic factor is necessary for absorption.
Treatment: regular injections of B12 or intrinsic factor
51
Hemorrhagic
| Cause, treatment
– Cause: the result of blood loss, can be rapid
| – Treatment: blood transfusions
52
Cause of sickle cell anemia
| Those affected
– Sickle cell anemia is the result of abnormal hemoglobin (Red blood cells) problem is, only one of 287 amino acids is changed
– Occurs mainly among black people; one of 400 black newborns is affected in the United States
53
The problem with sickle cell anemia
Normal hemoglobin contains an amino acid called glutamic acid. This has been replaced by a different amino acid known as valine-- in those with sickle cell anemia
54
Symptoms of sickle cell anemia
```
– Anemia
– Paralysis
– Jaundice
– Swelling of extremities
– Vision problems
– Skin ulcers
– Kidney failure
– Sickle shaped red blood cells
```
55
Sickle cell anemia treatment
– in some cases sickle cell anemia treatment requires blood transfusions
– Blood transfusions will reduce the risk of certain complications of the disease and also reduce symptoms of severe anemia
– A blood transfusion may prevent a first stroke in children who have sickle cell disease
56
Polycythemia
| Cause and what happens
Cause: an excess of red blood cells
-blood is too thick, makes it harder to pump and this is hard on the heart.
– Usually the result of bone marrow cancer
57
Symptoms of Polycythemia
– Dizziness
– High red blood cell count
– hematocrit maybe 80% (normal is 45%)
– Thrombophlebitis = blood clot, usually occurs in the surface layer veins in the legs. Causes redness, swelling and pain.
Death from Polycythemia is usually due to heart failure
58
Treatment for polycythemia
– A partial exchange transfusion: (most often done in infants) blood is removed from the infant and replaced with normal blood
59
Leukemia
– The prefix Leuko means white
– Cancer of the white blood cells
– Tremendous number of cells produced that are immature
– The cancerous white blood cells crowd the red blood cells out of the marrow and lead to anemia
– The more serious forms usually affect children
– Without treatment leukemia is fatal
60
Symptoms of leukemia, causes of death
Symptoms: fever, weight loss, bone pain
Causes of death: internal hemorrhage, overwhelming infections
61
Treatment of leukemia
– Irradiation
– Drug therapy
– Bone marrow transplants
62
Mononucleosis
Also known as
Caused by
Those affected
– Produces excessive numbers of white blood cells that are deformed. Highly contagious. (Coughing, sneezing, saliva)
– Also called the kissing disease.
– Caused by Epstein-Barr(E-B) virus
– Most frequent in children and young adults
63
Symptoms of mononucleosis
| Cure, recovery
```
– Fatigue
– Aches
– Low-grade fever
– Sore throat
– White patches on the back of your throat
```
– There is no cure bc it's a virus
– Recovery in about four weeks
64
Testing for mononucleosis
– The test for mono is called the "monospot test"
– It is a blood test
– Results are fast
65
Hemophilia
– The oldest known hereditary bleeding disorder
– We have 12 clotting factors in our blood (one is missing)
– Most common hemophilia is that in which Factor VIII (factor 8) is missing
– It is sex linked
66
Symptoms of hemophilia
Cure, what to avoid
```
– Bleeding within the brain or intracranial hemorrhage
– Prolonged nosebleeds
– Bruises that occur easily
– Warm painful swollen joints
– Gastrointestinal hemorrhage
```
– No cure,
– Avoid injury and medication that promotes bleeding
67
Treatment of hemophilia, problems with treatment
– Injections of clotting factor, from blood plasma
– Two problems with blood transfusions; possible to contract either or both of the following – hepatitis or HIV
– people with hemophilia need to receive blood donations from at least 50 different patients to get enough clotting factor so that puts them at more risk than normal people
68
Blood types
Alleles, possible blood types
Most and least common
– in humans blood types are governed by more than two alleles: A, B, O (e.g. ABO blood groups in humans)
```
– Possible blood types:
A – 41% of US population
B – 10% of US population
AB – 4% of US population
O – 45% of US population
```
Most common is O, least common is AB
69
What alleles are needed to inherit to get type A blood
AA, or AO
70
What alleles are needed to inherit to get type B blood?
BB, or BO
71
What alleles are needed to inherit type AB blood?
AB
72
What alleles are needed to inherit type O blood?
OO
73
Type O blood
Universal donor, can give this blood to anyone else no matter what their blood type
74
Type AB blood
The universal acceptor, Will accept any of the blood types
75
Both Type A and B are _________and___________over O.
Codominant; dominant over O
76
How big is the heart?
| How many times on average does the heart beat a day?
The size of a fist.
| Beats 100,000 times a day
77
Layers of the heart
– Endocardium: lines the heart
– Myocardium: muscle of the heart
– Pericardium: sac around the heart
78
Circuits of circulation
Right side: – pumps blood to the lungs, – called the pulmonary circuit
Left side: – pumps blood to the body, – called the systemic circuit
79
Chambers of the heart
Which ventricle is bigger and why?
2 atria: upper chambers, smaller
2 ventricles: lower chambers, larger
The left ventricle has the thickest walls.
– because this is the chamber that pumps blood to the rest of the body, The pressure is the greatest in this chamber
80
Coronary arteries and veins
The blood that is pumped by the heart does not nourish the heart itself.
What does is:
Coronary arteries: supply the heart muscle itself.
Coronary veins: once the blood has been used, the coronary veins will carry the blood away from the heart
81
What is a heart attack?
| Also known as
– a heart attack is when one or more of the coronary arteries becomes occluded (blocked)
Also known as a myocardial infarction (MI)
82
Causes of a heart attack
– Can be a result of fatty deposits in the vessels that blocks flow of blood and does not allow the heart to get enough oxygen
83
The most important sign of a heart attack
Chest discomfort that lasts for more than five minutes
84
Common heart attack warning signs
Pain or discomfort in chest, lightheadedness, nausea or vomiting, jaw neck or back pain, discomfort or pain in arm or shoulder, shortness of breath
85
Treatments for a heart attack
– Clot busters
– Angioplasty
– Bypass surgery
86
Clot busters; types; when to be given; who not to be given to
– 2 clot blusters: TPA, streptokinase
– Must be given within 90 minutes, because the heart muscle will die by then
– Never give to a person who may need surgery, because they may bleed to death
87
Angioplasty; also known as; failure rate
– An inflated balloon is pressed against the wall of the artery to compress the obstruction/plaque
– Also called balloon surgery
– About 2/3 fail within one year
88
Bypass surgery
– The most dangerous, chest wall is cracked open – a vein is used to replace the blockage.
– Usually a vein from the leg is used
– Only good for about 10 years
89
Prevention therapy for heart attacks
– It is recommended that you take one baby aspirin a day at 81 mg
90
Electrocardiogram (ECG)
– A graph showing the electrical activity of the heart
| – It is important because it can tell you if there is a problem with your heart
91
ECG WAVES and what occurs during them
P wave: atria contract
QRS wave: ventricles contract
T wave: ventricles relax
92
Heart rate: what is normal, what is average, what is tachycardia, what is Bradycardia?
Normal: 60–100 bpm
Average: 72 bpm
Tachycardia: more than 100 bpm
Bradycardia: less than 60 bpm
93
Fibrillation
– A condition in which the heart quivers, it does not beat
-atrial fibrillation is not lethal
Ventricular fibrillation is lethal
94
Arrhythmia
And irregular heartbeat
| Can be lethal sometimes
95
Since the year 2000 who is more likely to become infected with the HIV virus?
– Females. About one in four people who have HIV is female
96
Transmission of the HIV virus
– The HIV virus cannot live without a host cell
| – The host cell is a white blood cell called the T-4
97
Blood as transmission for HIV
– Transfusions: blood has been tested since 1985, currently the risk is one in 500,000
– IV needles
– Tattoos and ear piercings
– Steroids
98
Breastmilk as transmission for HIV
– There is a one in three chance of mother passing to child
– All newborns of HIV positive mothers test positive for the virus because of mothers antibiotics
Babies must be retested at 18 months to know for sure
– AZT during pregnancy seems to help reduce the number of infected babies
99
Timeline for aids
Infection: flu like symptoms for 2 to 4 weeks
Window period: The time from infection to testing positive for the virus 3 to 6 months
HIV positive asymptomatic: test positive for HIV, but show no symptoms 7 to 15 years
HIV positive symptomatic colon test positive for HIV, begin to show symptoms for 3 to 7 years
Aids: full-blown symptoms for 3 to 5 years
100
HIV positive symptoms
– Night sweats, fever, unexplained weight loss 10 pounds or more, diarrhea, fatigue, vaginal infection
101
Diagnosing full-blown AIDS
1. You must test HIV-positive plus one of the following:
a. Have a T cell count of 200 or less – normal T-cell count: 1000-1200 mL
b. Have an opportunistic infection
102
Opportunistic infections: PCP and Kaposi's sarcoma
An infection that occurs because of some sort of compromise in the immune system
1. PCP- (pneumocystis caranii pneumonia; A parasite). Attacks the lungs
2. Kaposi's sarcoma – (cancer of the Blood vessels; purple skin blotches)
103
Opportunistic infections: CMV, TB and cervical cancer
CMV – Cytomegalovirus
TB - tuberculosis
Cervical cancer
104
Safer sex to prevent aids
– Latex condom, not natural skin tears easier
– Water-based lubricant
– Spermicide with nonoxynol 9
– Choosing well risk sexual activities
105
Things that kill HIV virus
Bleach, heat, oxygen, alcohol
106
Drugs used to treat the HIV virus, combination of these drugs that work best:
```
AZT
DDI
DDC
D4T
Protease inhibitors
```
Combos:
AZT and DDI and protease inhibitors
AZT and DDC and Protease inhibitors
107
Test for HIV virus anti-body and their problems
ELISA - many false positives
Western blot - expensive
IFA - expensive
108
Outlook for the AIDS epidemic
– It is likely that there will be no cure for a long time, if ever. It is a virus like the common cold
– The hope is that the drugs will keep infected people symptom-free for longer periods of time
109
Functions of the respiratory system
```
– Carry air to and from the lungs
– Replenish oxygen
– Get rid of carbon dioxide
– Produce sounds
– Maintain PH
– Perceive odors
```
110
Pathway of air through the body
```
Nose
Pharynx
Larynx
Trachea
Primary bronchus
Secondary bronchus
Tertiary bronchitis
Bronchiole
Terminal bronchiole
Alveolus (air sac) - where oxygen and carbon dioxide are exchanged
```
111
Vocal chords
Allow production of sounds
Are elastic and can be stretched
Are thicker in males than females
This is the reason men have deeper voices – testosterone is responsible for this
When vocal chords are relaxed, the sound is lower
When they tighten, the sound is higher
112
Problems of the respiratory system
– Laryngitis
– Asthma
– Cystic fibrosis
113
Laryngitis
Inflammation of the larynx
Caused by a virus, bacterium most often
Can also be caused by smoke, overuse of voice, alcohol
114
Asthma
– A respiratory disease with wheezing and difficulty breathing
– It occurs when the bronchioles constrict and air is trapped in the lungs
– Affects 2% of adults
– More common in children but many outgrow
– No cure
115
Causes of asthma
Food, pollen, dog and cat dander
116
Treatment of asthma
Oral spray of epinephrine, no smoking, clean up the air
117
Cystic fibrosis
The most common lethal genetic disease in the United States, every day two children die of it
Passed on by two parents who are carriers, affects one of every 2400 white children
An autosomal recessive
118
Chromosome area where there was a deletion in patients with cystic fibrosis
Chromosome seven
119
What does cystic fibrosis affect
It affects the pancreas, testes, lungs
| So it affects digestion, reproduction, and breathing; all the basic processes of life
120
What problems do cystic fibrosis patients have
Secretion of a thick mucus, this mucus clogs respiratory passages, reproductive structures and digestive enzymes. This attracts the bacterium Pseudomonas which stays permanently
121
Symptoms of cystic fibrosis
```
Sweat tastes very salty
Frequent respiratory infections
Difficulty breathing
Difficulty keeping weight
Clubbed fingers and toes
Barrel shaped chest
Ascites
```
122
Cystic fibrosis treatments
Mucomyst - The brand name for acetylcysteine. A chemical most often in hailed by patience to thin their thick mucus and make it easier to expel
Postural drainage or vest - The patient is turned in different directions to help dislodge the thick mucus some use a vest to vibrate the mucus loose
Antibiotics
Viokase - A tablet or a pill taken orally by patience, contains pancreatic enzymes like lipase, protease, and Amylase to help these patients digest their food more readily
123
Testing for cystic fibrosis
The sweat test – simple, painless, measures the amount of salt in sweat
BIO 125
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