Inductive reasoning
- to create a general conclusion out of a specific instance.
- the conclusion is no logical premise that follows out of the conclusion but a generalized statement that is not necessarily true.
- -> analogical reasoning
- -> hypothesis testing - leading to general conclusions.
Deductive reasoning
- conclusion follows necessarily from the assumption.
- relation to problem solving. Deductive reasoning has a definitive goal. (a math calculation)
- -> conclusions are necessarily valid
- conditional reasoning
- Syllogistic reasoning
Karl Popper
- falsification is the only reasonable form of scientific reasoning.
No confirmation can ever be reached through hypothesis testing.
Wasons 2-4-6 task
- Experiment of Wason:
The participants were told to name three numbers in search of a rule. The experimenter would tell them if there attempts was correct or false.
A lot of participants struggled with the confirmation bias. They made up a rule and tried to confirm this rule.
confirming behavior costed the pp a lot of time.
Limitation to Wasons task
- no real life scenario
- -> immediate feedback but no answer why their hypothesis was correct or incorrect.
- less confirmation bias if the hypothesis is the one tested of someone else.
Popper
focus on falsification instead of confirmation.
Full confirmation is impossible
Strategies for deductive reasoning
- counterexample strategy:
thinking of a counterexample of the own theory. If nothing comes to mind the theory can be confirmed. - statistical strategy:
Estimating the probability that the hypothesis is true given the knowledge of a person.
Wason selection task with turning around cards
- people have the task to only turn around the tasks that need to be turned in order to detect the true rule.
Matching rule:
Pp only turn around cards that would prove the cards that are already open. ( their theory) +
Denotic rule. ( disproving rule)
Turn around cards that would disprove your rule.
Belief bias
the tendency to belief incorrect but believable information rather than unbelievable but correct conclusions.
Base rate effect
- the knowledge about the likelihood of the information being true effect the way a person reasons about the
Stupple and Ball 2008
- found that pp take more time to process unbelievable premises than believable ones.
People identify the premises with their own beliefs. This is why an unbelievable premise causes more cognitive conflict.
Mental model theory
- John Laireds theory states that people do not make use of deductive reasoning.
Instead they use mental models that are made up of already confirmed premises and prior knowledge.
If the premises and the conclusion are inconsistent the conclusion is invalid.
Alternative models may be formed.
or Counterexample models which function to falsify the model.
The principle of truth
- through the generation of mental models humans seek confirmation
- humans fail to think of what is false
- therefore the models are often not accurate and lead to a false outcome.
System 1 and System 2
System 1 :
- this system does process unconscious fast processing, parallel processing.
heuristics
System two :
conscious
slow and effortful processing , this system is involved in analytical reasoning.
- rule based serial processing
–> problem solving, limited capacity.
Three principles of human reasoning
Singularity principle:
only one model can be considered at a time.
Relevance principle:
the most relevant model, based on the persons knowledge is considered
Satisficing principle :
decision making strategy that aims towards a satisfying or adequate result. Not necessarily to a fully correct result.
What are the three different theories towards System 1 and System 2 processing
- serial: Deliberate processing does begin after intuitive reasoning.
- parallel: Both intuitive and deliberate processes occur at the same time.
- logical intuition model:
intuitive heuristics and logical heuristics occur parallely. - deliberate processing occurs after only if needed.
Advantages and disadvantages of the different models
- serial model:
intuitive logical decisions are not covered. - parallel model :
this model does contain a way too high energy waste. The capacities of the central executive are very limited. The parallel working does use the limited resources too much. - logical intuitionist model:
does not differentiate among heuristics and intuitive logic enough
logical intuitionist model De Neys ??
- due to the logical intuitionist model, human cognition is structured in first logical and heuristic processes working in parallel.
What is a logical process ? –> logical processes can be activated automatically.
If the logical and heuristic processes are in conflict the deliberate processing is activated.
Analytical systems are more likely to be used when the instructions empathise that logical reasoning is needed in this exercise.
What is the use of De Neys monitoring system ?
The monitoring system is part of the logical intuitionist model. The monitoring system does monitor the intuitive processes and bodily reactions towards them in order to activate the deliberate cognitive processes when needed.
Bodily reactions that:
- long reconsideration lead the participants to activate analytical thinking
- feelings of rightness lead the participant to accept the intuitive answer.
Findings that support ehe logical intuitionist model
- does account for individual differences in reasoning
- does entail the three proven principles of human reasoning: satisficing, relevance and singularity
- findings prove the existence of heuristic and analytic processes and that the latter is more effortful
Limitations of the logical intuitionist model
- the model does not explain how heuristic and analytical processes interact.
- there is not prove to the theory that heuristic processes are followed by analytical processes.
Brain areas activated in deductive reasoning
Generally it can be said that the left frontal and parietal cortex areas are the ones that are the most active during deductive reasoning.
Relational reasoning: E.G. X is next to Y and Y is next to 1 therefore
Parietal cortex shows high activtion due to the representational and spatial processing needed.
categorical reasoning: E.G. all x are Y. and all Y are 1
Rule based reasoning is needed.
Left inferior frontal gyrus
propositional reasoning: E.G. If X than Y
left precentral gyrus. This region is associated with attentional processes and motor processes.
individual differences in deductive reasoning
- more intelligent people do make more use of analytical reasoning
- the right inferior frontal cortex is involved in inhibiting incorrect intuitions.
- -> individuals with more activity in this area show less belief bias
The more highly complex the task is the more belief bias is used by the persons
Dual system theories
Dual system theory:
- people use deductive reasoning first which may than be enriched by their knowledge and context.
heuristic analytic theory of reasoning:
- People do first use heuristics and their knowledge and context
- if a next step is needed they make use of analytic reasoning.
