globalisation 3.1: increasing globalisation
how has the development of crypto led to increased globalisation and time-space compression recently?
El Salvador have made bitcoin legal tender, using lightning network to settle international remittances instantly, for people without bank accounts -> swifter transfer bypassing western, traditional intermediary banks
also useful for western superpowers/economic systems being challenged
globalisation 3.2: tradeblocks
how does political decision has an influence on globalisation: ASEAN digital economy framework agreement (DEFA)
- shared agreed digital trade pact across Asian countries - bypassing Western digital barriers and cross-border banking fees and delays by adopting regional, local-currency-based, cross-border QR code payments
- $2 trillion worth by 2030
- as WTO becoming increasingly sidelined
also useful for western superpowers/economic systems being challenged
3.3 switched off/detached from globalisation
explain why Chad is switched off from globalisation?
physical and environmental reasons - not by choice!!
- landlocked - 1000km from the nearest port in Cameroon-> no access to global sea trade -> making imports and exports extremely expensive -> less FDI
- climate- semi arid Sahelian region makes agricultural development difficult -> being made worse by desertification and climate change, with Lake Chad, once a vital lifeline for thier economy ahs shrunk by 90% since 1960s
- humanitarian crisis with 1.4 million refugees from Sudan-> strains the little anfrastructure already in place-> focus on basic survival ratheer than integration into the globalised economy
3.3 switched off/detached from globalisation
North Korea
they could integrate if they wanted to!!
- switched off by political choice and Juche policy
- but becoming more integrated through Russia NK quasi alliance developing from military deal to economic partnership, sending technical labourers to Russia in exchange for food and energy
- in Feb 2025 the Rason SEZ was opened to tourism briefly
- so, if NK wanted to integrate into the globalised world, they could (unlike Chad)
3.4 impacts of the global shift
Vietnam - becoming the new high tech workshop of SE Asia
- shift in the economic centre of gravity away from China (moving into high end services, Rostow’s modernisation theory), towards Vietnam
- 2025, electronics became the primary driver of Vietnam’s economic growth, with $164 billion worth of exports
- TNCs are the main driver here - Samsung produces 50% of its global supply in Vietnam
- Vietnam attracted $30 billion in FDI flows as companies looked for alternatives to China (USA high trade tariffs)
- But Vietnam in top 11 most vulnerable to climate change, with rapid industrialisation putting pressure on envrionmental degradation- still reliant on fossil fuels for over half of its energy
3.5 impacts of the flows of people
elite remote workers
- digital nomads
- over 50 countries have formalised a nomad visa provision for remote workers with specific skills in tech based fields of work - offered incentives for living there, as workers can bring untaxed foreign income directly into their country to be spent in their economy
- Philipines, digital nomads have been credited with improving local digital infrastructure
- BUT causes gentrification from high income remote workers who are prioritised by landlords
- BUT braindrain - in ‘24, 250,000 Brits left, many of which are STEM professionals -> loss of tax revenue and economic productivity
3.6 cultural diffusion
influences from the global south have been growing - cultural hybridisation - counters westernisation/americanisation
- KPOP and Japanese gaming are becoming increasingly influential in shaping cultures -> global fussion of culture
- non english content on streaming platforms saw a 40% increase in viewership driven by 2025
- food market - fusion food market growing, eg the croffle (spread faster because of social media)
3.7 inequalities between countries
gaps between nations vs gaps within nations
double edged sword
- shrinking the gap between the global south and the west
- OXFAM report - 2024 billionaire wealth growth of $2 trillion
- while 50% of humanity still lifts on less than $6 a day
- Gini coefficient
- China has left 500 million out of poverty since 1991 due to global shift, BUT the richest 10% now own over 50% of the nation’s wealth
- wages in the global south are still 85% lower than the north/west
- increased exploitation of minerals due to transition to green energy (high tech parts needed) eg in DIC but poor governance means distribution of this income in insufficient to evenly spread the wealth -> TNC and local elites make millions more
3.8 political and social tensions
some countries are transitioning to national sentiments and domestic markets
- rise of far right nationalist parties (eg reform) participate in discussions of globalisation- argue that it has left people behind and eroded national identity
- free movement of people seen as a threat -> nationalism and sovereignty increasing
- shift to economic nationalism eg USA moving away from reliance on Chinese imports
3.9 managing impacts of globalisation
ethical consumption
- increased disposable income from growing middle class which is projected to grow to 4.8 billion people by 2030
- ethical consumption of clothes -> EU closed the tax free loop hole for small packages = protectionist measure -> promote local purchase -> decrease carbon consumption of trade
- eg Totness, Devon
- more companies producing companies that are designed to be repaired rather replaced (eg increasing availability of spare parts)
- EU has banned companies being able to purposefully develop products that break after a certain amount of time
- BUT how accessible for lower income families?
7.1 - facets of geopolitical power
hard power from the US (economic and military pillar)
- US use of hard power in Venezuala to remove President Marduro
- to directly change the socialist regime, which would was very resitant to any soft power influence from the West
- coersion for a regime power
7.1 facets of geopolitical power
soft power - education
- Higher Education Policy Institute (HEPI) - soft power index
- shows both the US and UK are still leading globally in terms of education systems
- 66% of world leaders have been educated in the US
- 59% have been educated in the UK
- so future world leaders will bring those taught Western ideologies into their political position and national policies
7.1 facets of power
smart power - combined approach in Saudi Arabi
- Saudi Arabia’s rebranding project under Vision 2030 utilises a combination of hard and soft power
- uses its huge oil wealth to invest $1 billion into global sports , which is allowing them to rebrand their global image
7.2- patterns of power
colonial to neocolonial control, China’s global south power
- eg British Empire as a colonial rule, using hard power and military invasion
- shift to indirect neocolonial control since the end of WW2
- countries can influence others by budget
- eg China’s One Belt One Road and increasing presence in Africa - creating economic dependence with debt traps, eg Sri Lanka -> 99 year lease on the Hambantota International Port by the South China Sea, and Djibouti
7.3 - growth of emerging countries
growing role of BRICs+?
- emerging powers challenging the hegemonic power of the USA
- BRICS as an alliance has expanded to BRICS+ - expanding the extent of its influence in the global south
- BRICS was formed to challenge US influence in the global financial system
- BRICS+ now includes major energy giants, such as Saudi Arabia, alongside emergin giants,such as Indonesia with large,youthful populations
- now represents over 50% of the global population
- generates 36% of the world’s GDP
- forum is now becoming an energy powerhouse, controllng 40% of global oil output
- also gaining influence with its push for financial sovereignty through the NEw DEvelopment Bank, actively moving away from the US $
- aims to provide 30% of its loans in local currencies, undermining the dominance of the US$
- but also major weakness due to internal fragmentation within the Middle Eastern members, eg Iran and Saudi Arabia
7.4 - global economic influence of superpowers
shift away from the unipolar financial system dominated by the US$
- bipolar financial system?
- China increasingly trading directly in Yuan, bypassing US sanctions
- over 30% of China’s trade in goods and services is now done in its own currency (compared with 14% in 2019)
- currently regional
7.5 - global action, crisis and conflict response of superpowers
emerging powers are increasingly influential in global action
- US using hard power global action eg invasion of Venezuela to resolve internal conflict-> global police force (unilateral move)
- China’s growing role as an intermediary on the global stage - reaffirmed role in maintaining peace between Saudi Arabia and Iran -> focuses on state to state cooperation, rather than demanding political conditions
7.6 - superpower impacts on physical environment are disproportionate
different nations trying to position themselves as a climate leader
- China’s increasing investment in green tech
- the USA has justified its massive increase in gas extraction to expand datacentres for AI which requires vast amounts of energy (1/3 of this gas produced energy is used for the datacentres) & AI also requires water, projected that by 2028, data centre water usage could quadruple - equivalent of water for 10 million household users a year
7.7 - contested spheres of influence
Arctic
- USA has accelerated its push to acquire Greenland from Denmark - calls it crucial for national security
- the Arctic is rich in resources: 25 of the 34 minerals needed for technology production & 1/3rd of the natural gas resources in Greenland
7.7 contested spheres of influence
south china sea
- land reclamation has accelerated - using artificial islands as functional nodes for its navy -> to gain control over vital shipping routes and vital energy reserves
- risky for neighbouring countries to place their own claim - Philippines has turned to South Korea to build up their national defence
7.8 - relationship between superpowers and the developing world
superpowers not only trading with developing countries but also actively shaping internal politics - USA and CHina
- US and the Middle East - Iranian uprising encouraged to keep rotesting by Trump on social media - giving confidence to the protestors and destabilising a regime
- USA intervention in Venezeula also to remove socialist leader
- China is using its global development initative to offer an alternative to US intervention, by providing mediated stability without significant political reform -> eg UAE strengthening its ties with Beijing launching air routes to Chinese tech hubs and using credit card systems
7.8 - relationship between superpowers and the developing world
China’s long term soft power in Africa
- Beijing has now launched the China-Africa People to People Exchange - forms friendship between China and African countries through mutual learning between citizens
- eg building Luban workshops (vocational workshops) which train African youth in technology eg in Djibouti
7.9 - future patterns of power
challenges faced by current superpowers
- USA and EU suffering from major economic restructuring of the global shift - both have large sums of debt
- USA national debt more than $38 billion -> interest trap, using money up for investment in tech, infrastructure etc
- dollar has shed 10% of its values in the last year
- compared to China, with huge trade surplus; chinese excports to the EU rose by 8% and exports to countries to Africa have increased to 26% in 2025 -> decoupling its wealth from the USA
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tectonic processes and hazards spev and key processes88
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hydrological cycle and water security83
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the carbon cycle24
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coasts key terms/located examples etc129
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globalisation spev 🌐53
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superpowers spev 💪🏻32
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diverse places located examples (better)36
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HHRI31
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recent examples for globalisation/superpowers23
