1
Q
What is sexual selection
A
An evolutionary explanation of partner preference of partner preferences
Attributions or behaviour that increase reproductive success are passed on and may become exaggerated over succeeding generations of offspring
2
Q
What Is human reproductive behaviour
A
Refers to any behaviour which relates to to oppurtunities to reproduce and thereby increase the survival chances of our genes
Includes evolutionary mechanisms such as mate choice and mate competition
3
Q
What’s anisogamy
A
Refers to the difference between male and female sex cells
4
Q
What is inter sexual selection
A
Mate choices by males or females
5
Q
What is intra-sexual selection
A
Competition between individuals of the same sex (male-male or female-female)
6
Q
What do evolutionary psychologists believe
A
They believe that. The psychological processes that people use to choose a partner come from evolution
7
Q
What is natural selection
A
It is the process when characteristics that make an individual more likely to reproduce and pass on their genes become more prevalent in a population
8
Q
What is the relationship between natural selection and sexual selection
A
One of the processes of natural selection is sexual selection
9
Q
What is sexual selection
A
Within a species there are certain characteristics that make an individual more able to find a partner (e.g young physically attractive)
10
Q
What are characteristics that have been evolved from sexual selection
A
Young
Physically attractive
11
Q
What do the characteristics from sexual selection give
A
These characteristics give an individual a reproductive advantage therefore they become more prevalent
12
Q
What are the conflicts between natural and sexual selection
A
However there can be a conflict between natural selection and sexual selection as sometimes the traits that are attractive making an individual less likely to survive (e.g peacocks)
13
Q
What is anisogamy
A
Difference between male and female sex cells gives rise to different mating strategies
14
Q
What is intra sexual selection
A
Within each sex
Members of one sex (usually male) compete for access to the other sex(usually female) leading to male-female dimorphism
15
Q
What does intra sexual selection lead to
A
Male-female dimorphism
16
Q
What is inter-sexual selection
A
Between the sexes
One sex (usually females) chooses from available perspective mates (usually males)
17
Q
Which sexual selection is within each sex
A
Intra sexual selection
18
Q
What sexual selection is between the sexes
A
Inter-sexual selection
19
Q
What is parental investment theory
A
Reproductive behaviours originate in the amount of parental investment put in to offspring
20
Q
What is true about male parental investment
A
Males investment in offspring is relatively small and the best way to maximise success is to mate as often as possible - quantity over quality
21
Q
What do men aim for in terms of parental investment theory
A
Quantity over quality
22
Q
What is true about female parental investment
A
Whereas females invtesmnt is substantial and the best chance of reproductive success is to ensure the survival of a small number offspring - quality over quantity
23
Q
What do women aim for in terms of parental investment
A
Quality over quantity
24
Q
What was Clark and Hatfield procedure
A
Sample of male and female students approached stranger of the opposite sex with three requests
- To go out on a data with them that night
- To go back to their house with them
- To have sex with them
25
What was Clark and hatfields results
50% of men and women agreed to the date however none of the women agreed to sex but 75% of men did
26
What was buss procedure
Questionnaires we used to collect data from over 10000 men and women from 37 different cultural groups
The questionnaires covered demographic information such as age gender and Marital status
They also asked about performance for variables such as marriage age differences and characteristics in a mate (e.g intelligence and financial prospects)
27
What was buss results
Women valued variables associated with gaining resources (e.g money safe environment) more highly than men
Men valued variables associated with reproductive capacity (e.g youth) more highly than women
28
What variables did buss find women valued more
Valued variables associated with gaining resources (e.g money, safe environment) more highly then men
29
What variables did buss find men valued more
Valued variables associated with reproductive capacity (e.g youth) more highly than women
30
What was buss conclusion
Women have limited access to the resources needed to provide for themselves needed to provide for themselves and their offspring
So they’ve evolved (through sexual selection) to select mates who can provide these resources
The factors limiting men’s reproductive success has been access to fertile women and so they have evolved to be attracted to women with a high likelihood of reproducing
31
What evaluations are there for buss study
There were similar findings across a range of different cultures
However it wasn’t a truly representitive study as it was hard to include rural and less educated populations
Cross cultural research it’s important as it suggests university lite evidence for an evolutionary explanation of gender differences in sexual selection
32
What is physical attractiveness
An important factor in the formation of relationships
Usually applies to how appealing we find a persons face
33
What is the matching hypothesis
The belief we do not select the most attractive person as a prospective partner but instead are attracted to people who ‘match us’ in physical attractiveness
34
What’s the halo effect
How one distinguished feature (physical attractiveness) has a disproportionate influence on one judgement of a persons attribute
35
What’s the filter theory
An explanation of relation ships formation that states a series of different factors progressively limits the range of available partners
36
What’s the social demography
Such factors as geographical location and social class filter out potential partners
37
What’s similarity in attitudes
We find partners who share our basic values in the earlier stages of a relationship
38
What’s complementarity
Similarity is replaced by a need for your partner to balance your traits as a relationship develops
39
What is self disclosure
Revealing personal information about yourself
Self disclosure about ones deepest thoughts and feelings can strengthen a romantic bond
40
What is the importance of physical attractiveness in relationships
It’s possibly based on evolutionary theory
41
What are people attracted to (physical attractiveness and matching hypothesis)
Low waist - hip ratio - fertility
Symmetrical - honest sign of genetic fitness
Faces with neonate (baby face) features e.g large eyes, small nose - trigger caring/protective instinct
42
What does a low waist - hip ratio show
Fertility
43
What does symmetrical face show
Honest sign of genetic fitness
44
What does faces with neonates (baby face) cause
Large eyes, small nose
Tiggers caring protective instinct
45
What did McNulty et al find
Found initial attractiveness to be an importnat feature of the relationship even several years after marriage
46
What is the halo effect
How one distinguished feature (i.e attractiveness0 tend ti have a disproportionate influence on our judgement of another (we.g personality)
47
What did dion et al find
Found physically attractive people were also rated as more kind sociable and successful compared to unattractive people
48
What’s the matching hypothesis (walster)
People choose partner who are of a similar attractiveness to themselves
Possibly to avoid rejection
49
Why do people choose partners of similar attractiveness to themselves
Possibly to avoid rejection
50
What was walster et al procedure
A computer dance was advertised in a handbook given out to new university students and tickets were sold to 376 men and 376 women
The people selling tickets secretly rated each student for attractiveness
The students weren’t told they were participating in a study
Instead they were told that a computer would match them with a data for the dance who shared their interest
In fact the participants were paired randomly with somebody of the opposite sex although no men were paired with taller women
During the dance the participants filled a questionnaire about their data
Participants were contacted 4 to 6 months later to find out if they’d tried to go on any further dates with their dance date
51
What were walster et al results
Participants paired with a similarly attractive partner were not significantly more liked by their date than those paired with a partner with an attractiveness rating different to theirs
Instead participants who were rated as more attractive were more liked by their data
More attractive participants were also more frequently asked out on further dates than less attractive participants whereas there was no correlation between similarity in attractiveness in a pair and the number of times participants were asked out again
52
What was walster et al conclusion
The matching hypothesis was not supported - the results showed that people prefer attractive partners regardless of their own attractiveness
53
What is the filter theory according to kerckhoff and Davis
There are three main factors that act as filters to narrow down our range of partner choice
54
What does social demography include
Includes geographical location, social class, level of education, ethnic group religion etc
55
What level of the filter theory is social demography
1st level of filter
56
Why is similarity in attitudes important
It encourages greater and deeper communication and promotes self-disclosure
57
What level of the filter theory is similarity in attitudes
2nd level of filter
58
What is complementarity
Have to complement each others needs in other words ‘opposite attract’
59
What filter level is complementarity
3rd level
60
What does social demography lead to
Felid of availables
61
What does similar attitudes lead to
Having a field of desirables
62
When is complementarity importnat
Later relationship
63
What was kerkhoff and Davis procedure
Longitudinal study of students - some had been together less than 18 months and some more than 18 months completed several questionnaires over 7 month period
64
What were kerckhoff and Davis results
Found similarity of attitudes most important factor in first 18 months and complementarity more important after 18 months
Supporting filter theory (2nd and 3rd filters)
65
What is true about the role of self disclosure
Self disclosure plays a vital role in a relationship beyond the initial attraction
66
If used effectively and wisely what can self disclosure do
It can help the course of the relationship run smoother
67
What is the social penetration theory (self disclosure)
Gradual process of revealing your inner self (thoughts and feelings) to someone else
68
What happens as someone discloses
As they disclose they penetrate more into each others lives to be effective must be reciprocal
69
For self disclosure to effective what must be true
It must be reciprocal
70
What is depenetration
Describes how dissatisfied partners self-disclosure less
71
What are the two elements of self disclosure
Breath and depth as they increase partners become more committed
72
What is the onion metaphor
Disclosure a lot at the start (but superficial stuff) and relationships develop self disclosure becomes deeper
73
What is true about self disclosure
Can disclose too much too soon though
74
What was Sprecher et al procedure
Lab experiment using pairs of students who didn’t know each other
Each pair of students took part in two interactions
Interaction 1:
Student A was instructed to disclose personal information to student B
Then both were asked to record how much they liked the other
Interaction 2:
Student B was instructed to disclose personal information to students A
Then both were asked to record how much they liked each other again
75
What happened in interaction 1 of Sprecher et al study
Student A was instructed to disclose personal information to student B
Then both were asked to record how much they liked the other
76
What happened in interaction 2 of Sprecher ET al study
Student B was instructed to disclose personal information to student A
Then both were asked to record how much they liked each other again
77
What were Sprecher ET al results
After interactions 1 students B record a higher liking for student A (then vice versa)
After interactions 2 there was no difference in liking
Increased and was equal between two after self-disclosure
78
What is social exchange theory
A theory that assumes romantic partners act of self interest in exchanging rewards and costs
79
What is equity theory
An economic theory of relationships that acknowledges the impact of rewards and costs on relationships but also emphasis the role of equity
80
What is commitment
A romantic partners intention or desire to continue relationship
81
What is satisfaction
The extent to which romantic partners feel the rewards of the relationships exceed the costs
82
What is comparison with alternatives
A judgement that partners make concerning whether a relationship with a different partner would bring more rewards and fewer costs
83
What is investment
The resources associated with a romantic relationship which partners would lose if the relationships were to end
84
What is the phase model of relationship breakdown
An explanation of the stages people go through when their relationship is not working - intra psychic, dyadic , social and grave-dressing
85
What are the 4 phases of the phase model of relationship breakdown
Psychic
Dyadic
Social
Grave-dressing
86
What is the first phase of phase model of relationship breakdown
Psychic
87
What is the second phase of phase model of relationship breakdown
Dyadic
88
What is the third phase of phase model of relationship breakdown
Social
89
What is the fourth phase of phase model of relationship breakdown
Grave-dressing
90
What does social exchange theory argue
Argues that people are basically selfish aiming to maximise the rewards they receive and to minimise the costs
91
What are the rewards of being in a relationship in the social exchange theory
Social support
Sexual gratification
92
What are the costs of being in a relationship for the social exchange theory
Time
Money
Emotional costs (loss betrayal jealousy)
93
When are we in profit in the social exchange theory
If the rewards outweighs the costs the relationship it is said to be in ‘profit’
94
If the rewards outweigh the costs in social exchange theory what is happening
We are in profit
95
What does satisfaction depend on in social exchange theory
Whether or not we are satisfied in a relationship depends on the ration between costs and rewards
96
What happens if the costs out weight the rewards in social exchanges theory
In a state of loss which leads to dissatisfaction and possibly the breakdown of the relationship
97
When are we in loss in the social exchange theory
If the costs outweigh the rewards the results is a state of ‘loss’
Which leds to dissatisfaction and possibly the breakdown of the relationship
98
What did Thibaut and Kelly view relationships
Viewed relationships as business transactions where people keep an eye own a ‘balance sheet’ of their relationship
99
What are the two ways Thibaut and Kelley define two ways in which we measure ‘profit ‘
Comparison level (CL)
Comparison level for alternative (CL Alt)
100
What are comparison level (CL)
Comparing the current relationship with a General expectation of how rewarding relationships are, created from previous experience, social norms and self-esteem
101
What are the comparison level for alternative (CL Alt)
Comparing the current relationship with other possible relationships
102
What was Floyd and wasner procedure
238 students identified as being in a relationship completed a questionnaire that measured satisfaction commitment and availability of alternatives
103
What were the results of Floyd and wasner
Found commitment was correlated with satisfaction and availability of alternatives supporting SET
104
What is the equity theory
Equity theory agrees that people weigh up rewards and costs within relationships but argues that people have an expectation that relationships should be fair
According to ET couples keep an eye on what both they and their partners are putting in and getting out of the relationship
What matters is the perception that partners have about whether the distribution of rewards and cost is fair
When there is a lack of equity one partner over benefits and one partner under benefits
The person under-benefitting will feel dissatisfied and the person over-benefiting (perhaps) will feel guilty
One partner (most probably the under-benefited) may end the relationship (especially if it is of short duration)
However if the couples have been together for along time they may be motivated to repair it by restoring equity (by reducing inputs or increasing outputs/rewards)
105
What does equity theory agree with and argue against
Equity theory agrees that people weigh up rewards and costs within relationships but argues that people have an expectation that relationships should be fair
106
What do couples keep there eyes on in equity theory
According to ET couples keep an eye on what both they and their partner are putting in and getting out of the relationship
107
What does equity theory say matters
What matters is the perception that partners have about whether the distribution of rewards and cost is fair
108
When is the a lack of equity in the equity theory
When there is a lack of equity one partner over benefits and one partner under benefits
109
How will the person under benefiting feel in a relationship
Will feel dissatisfied
110
How will the person over-benefiting feel in the relationship feel
They will feel guilty
111
How will people in the relationship feel according to equity theory
The person under-benefiting will feel dissatisfied and the person over-benefiting (perhaps) will feel guilty
112
What is most likely to happen to the relationship in the short term (equity theory)
One partner (most probably the under-benefitted) may end the relationship (especially in the short duration)
113
Which partner is more likely to end the relationship in the short term
The partners most probably the under-benefiting
114
What is most likely to happen to a relationship the long term (equity theory)
However if the couple have been together for a long time they may be motivated to repair it by restring equity (by reducing inputs or increasing outputs/rewards)
115
How would a coupe make there relationship equitable in the Long term
By reducing inputs or increasing outputs/rewards
116
What did utne et al procedure
Survey of 118 married couples using two-self report scales
PPs aged between 16-45 and been together for more than two years
117
What were utune et als results
Found those in an equitable relationships were more satisfied then those where someone was over or under benefiting
118
What is the investment model and who came up with it
Rusbult (1980) came up with the investment model that says that the stability of a relationship overtime is determined by commitment
119
What is investment model also referred to as
Rusbults model
120
What is satisfaction
Extent to which the partners feel the rewards exceed the costs
121
What is comparison with alternatives
A Belief that the relationship offers better rewards (and fewer costs) compared with any alternatives
122
What is investment
Resources which the partner would lose if the relationship were to end
Are things that have been put into the relationship and which can’t be got back if the relationship ends
123
What is true about investments
The partner would lose them if the relationship were to end
They can’t be got back if the relationship ends
124
What are the two types of investment
Intrinsic investments (things that go into the relationships) money
Extrinsic (things bought to the person through the relationship) children
125
What are intrinsic investments
Things put into the relationships
Like money
126
What are extrinsic investments
Things bought to the person though the relationship
Children
127
What is true about the size of the investment
The bigger the investments the more likely someone is to stay in a relationship
128
What was le and Agnews procedure
Meta analysis of 52 studies across 5 countries (over 11000 PPs )
129
What were le and agnews results
Satisfaction, comparison with alternative and investment size all correlated with relationship commitment
These outcomes were true across all cultures for both men and women and both hetrosexual and homosexual relationships
130
What was le and Agnew conclusion
Increasing validity of the investment theory
131
What did duck do
Developed a four-phase stage model of relationships
132
What is the intra - psychic phase of ducks model
Focus on cognitive process occurring within the individual
This dissatisfied partner mulls over thoughts privately
133
What is the threshold for the intra-psychic phase
I can’t stand this anymore
134
What is the dyadic phase of ducks model
Focus on interpersonal process between two partners
Relationships in dissatisfied and dissatisfactions are caried
135
What id the threshold of the dyadic phase
I would be justified in withdrawing
136
What is the social phase of ducks model
Focus on wider process involving the couples social networks
The break up is more public
137
What is the threshold of the social phase
I mean it
138
What is the grave-dressing phase in ducks model
Focus on the aftermath allows partners to save face and maintain positive reputation
139
What is the threshold of the grave - dressing phase
It’s now inevitable
140
What was lefebrve et al procedure
208 students completed online survey about facebook use following recent break up
141
What were lefebrve et al findings
Common strategies included
relational cleansing (e.g changing ‘status’)
Electronic surveillance (e.g ‘stalking activities’)
Withdrawing access (e.g blocking)
Positive impression (e.g posting photos of night out)
142
What were the common strategies used in lefebrve et al study
Relational cleansing (e.g changing ‘status’)
Electronic surveillance (e.g ‘stalking activities’)
Withdrawing access (e.g blocking)
positive impression (e.g posting photos of night out)
143
What is relational cleansing
Changing status
144
What is electronic surveillance
Stalking activates
145
What is withdrawing access
Blocking
146
What is positive impression
Posting photos of night out
147
What was lefebrve ET al conclusion
Strategies map on ducks model (particularly grave-dressing phase)
148
What are parasocial relationships
One sided unreciprocated relationships, usually with a celebrity
149
What is self disclosure
Revealing personal information about yourself
These self-disclosures about ones deepest thoughts and feelings can strengthen a romantic bond when used appropriately
150
What is gating
Face to face (FtF) relationships often fail to form because of obstacles (gates) such as facial disfigurement that some people might find off-putting
These gates are absent in computer-mediated communication (CMC)
151
What are levels of parasocial relationship
Three-step description of one-sided relationships in terms of increasing strength from entertainment-social to intense-personal to borderline pathological
152
What is the absorption addiction model
Explains parasocial relationships as total pre-occupation in a celebrity’s life plus an addcative striving after a stronger involvement
153
What is attachment theory
An explanation of how an enduring bond forms between two people that persist over time
Insecure resistant types are more likely to form parasocial relationships
154
What are the two theories for self-disclosure in virtual relationships
Reduced cue theory
The hyperpersonal model
155
What is the reduced cues theory
Virtual relationships are less effective than face to face (FtF) because they lack cues we depend on
E.g verbal cues such as physical appearance and cues to our emotional state such as social expressions
This leads to greater de-individuation which in turn encourages disinhibition and leads to less self-disclosure
156
Why are virtual relationships less effective at self disclosure then face to face
Because they lack cues we depend on
157
What are examples of reduced cue
Non verbal cues such as physical appearance and cues to our emotional state such as social expressions
158
What does reduced cues lead to
This leads to greater de-individuating which in turn encourages disinhibition and leads to less self-disclosure
159
What is the hyperpersonal model
Virtual relationships are more effective than face to face because self disclosure happens earlier
Have more time to manipulate online image than FtF (selective penetration)
Anonymity encourages self-disclosure (stranger on the train effect) leading to greater self-disclosure
160
Why are virtual relationships more effective at self disclosure then face to face( FtF)
Because self disclosure happens earlier
161
What is selective self presentation
Have more time to manipulate online image than FtF
162
How does anonymity effect self disclosure
Anonymity encourages self-disclosure (strangers in the train effect) leading to greater self-disclosure
163
What are gates
Gating refers to the obstacles (gates) that get in the way of two people forming a relationship face to face
164
What factors act as gates
Factors that act as ‘gates’ include physical appearance, flyness and social skills
165
What is true about gates in virtual relationships
These ‘gates’ are absent in virtual relationships so self-disclosure can become more frequent and deeper
166
What was joinsons procedure
Undergraduate students were recruited to participate in a laboratory study
Participants were paired (mostly in single sex pairs) and asked to discuss an abstract to discuss an abstract dilemma which stimulated conversation
Transcripts of the participants discussions were rated on their levels of self-disclosure
Rates weren’t told which transcripts came from which condition
Only unprompted disclosures were included (i.e not answers to direct questions) and tasks related disclosures (e.g an opinion relevant to the task) weren’t counted
Experimenter 1:
Half of the Paris discussed the dilemma face to face and half discussed it from separate rooms using computer chat programs
Experiment 2:
All pairs used the chat program but half of them also had a video connection so could see each another/other
167
What happened in experiment 1 of joinson
Half of the pairs discussed the dilemma face to face and half discussed it from separate rooms using computer chat programs
168
What happened in experiment 2 of joinson study
All of the pairs used the chat program but half of them also had a video connection so could see each other/another
169
What were the results from joinson study
In experiment 1 participants in the computer condition showed significantly more self-disclosure than the face to face participants
In experiment 2 pairs who could see one another over video had significantly lower levels of self-disclosure than pairs without video
170
What were the results in experiment 1 in joinson study
In experiment 1 participants in the computer condition showed significantly more self-disclosure than the face to face participants
171
What were the results in experiment 2 of joinsons study
In experiment 2 pairs who could see one another over video had significantly lower levels of self-disclosure than pairs without video
172
What was the conclusion of joinson study
People disclose more about themselves when communicating via computer than they do face to face and using video reduces the level of self-disclosure in computer communication
173
What are virtual relationships
Perhaps the most notable change over the last thirty years has been the development of virtual relationships
Relationships can start online via dating sites and move to face to face format
Many relationships operate simultaneously face to face and via social networking items however some relationships for example those between online gamers can take place in a completely virtual relationship
174
How has virtual relationships changed relationships
Can start online via dating sites and move to face to face format
175
How do many relationships operate (virtual relationships
Many relationships operate simultaneously face to face and via social networking items however some relationships for example those between online gamers can take place in a complete virtual world
176
What is a parasocial relationship
Parasocial relationship are relationships with famous people : typically pop stars, film starts and athletes
177
How are parasocial relationships measured
Measured using questionare and scales (celebrity attitudes scales (CAS)) devised by McCutcheon in 2002 and revised in 2006
178
Who devised the celebrity attitudes scales (CAS)
MCcutcheon
179
What is the celebrity attitudes scale
Measures level of parasocial relationship
The CAS consists of 23 items such as ‘I like to talk to other fans about XXX’
180
What are the levels of parasocial relationship
Entertainment social
Intense personal
Borderline pathological
181
What is the entertainment social level of parasocial relationship
Relationship with the celebrity exists as a source of entertainment, and fuel for social interactions
182
What is intense personal level of parasocial relationship
Obsessive thoughts and intense feelings in relation to celebrity
183
What is boarderline pathological as a level of parasocial relationship
Obsessive thoughts give rise to harmful fantasies and behaviours
184
What is the absorption addiction model
McCutcheon created the absorption addiction model that argues people form parasocial relationships due to deficits in their lives
The model is closely linked to the 3 levels of parasocial relationship
185
Who created the absorption addiction model
MCcutcheon
186
What are the components of the absorption addiction model
Absorption and addiction
187
What is absorption
In the life of a celebrity can provide a sense of identity and fulfilment
188
What is addiction
Individual needs to increase ‘dose’ to gain satisfaction
189
What is attachment theory
Based on bowlbys idea of ‘internal working model’ and is worths idea of secure insecure attachment types
190
What did kinlen believe
Adults with insecure resistant attachment styles (type C) are more likely to from parasocial relationships possible because there was little chance of rejection
191
What is McCutheon et al procedure
Used the CAS to measure level of parasocial relationships
They also assessed participants ‘problems in their intimate relationships’
192
What did McCutcheon et al find/ his results
Participants who scored as borderline pathological or intense personal tended to experience high degree of anxiety in their intimate relationships
People at the entertainment social level generally did not (although even this level was associated with relationship problems)
Psychology
flashcards
Decks in class (22)
# Cards
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Social Influences105
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Psychology 16 Markers498
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Approaches180
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Reaserch Methods295
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Non Key Researchers371
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Behavourism Peel5
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Psychopathology184
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Attachment203
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SLT(socail Learning Theory) PEEL5
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Cognitive PEEL5
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Biological PEEL5
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Psychodynamic PEEL5
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Humanstic Peel5
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Researchers114
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Non Key Researchers Findings38
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Memory238
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Isssues And Debates89
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Schizophrenia237
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Aggression220
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Psychology 16 Markers222
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Relationships192
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Biopsychology219
