RESEARCH FOR PRACTISE Flashcards

Question

what is the purpose of gaining evidence and researching?

Answer 1

answers clinical questions

Answer 2

Level I = systematic reviews Level II = Randomised controlled trials Level III - 1 = cohort studies (non-randomised control trials) Level III - 2 = case control studies Level III - 3 = case series, case reports Level IIII - expert opinions

Answer 3

systematic reviews of randomised control trial investigations synthesising multiple high quality trials

Answer 4

participants randomly allocated to intervention or control group minimising allocation bias, measuring intervention effectiveness

Answer 5

participants not strictly randomly allocated causing greater risk of bias

Answer 6

case series no control group for comparison testing before and after treatment changes cannot be linked to intervention largely bias

Answer 7

consistent error in results and conclusions drawn

Answer 8

closeness to the truth accuracy of measure

Answer 9

repeatability of results consistency in measuring across time

Answer 10

accuracy of results

Answer 11

reduces bias

Answer 12

through flawed original studies

Answer 13

quality of evidence strength of recommendations

Answer 14

study design strengths and limitations levels of evidence consistency across studies effect size potential biases

Answer 15

focussed on exploring and understanding human experience concerned with why (qualifying), rather than how many (quantifying) depper understanding behind responses

Answer 16

exploring, in-depth understanding inductive reasoning (specific to general) strength: VALIDITY

Answer 17

measurement, statistical analysis deductive reasoning (general to specific) strength: RELIABILITY

Answer 18

RELIABILITY

Answer 19

1. triangulation 2. reflexivity 3. inter-related reliability

Answer 20

using multiple data collection methods

Answer 21

researchers critically reflecting on their influences

Answer 22

multiple analysis checks for consistency

Answer 23

purposive snowball convenience

Answer 24

participants targeted for relevant experience and characteristics

Answer 25

participants refer others to participate in study

Answer 26

participants that are easily accessable to researcher

Answer 27

interviews observational studies

Answer 28

semi-structured - The interviewer has a list of prepared questions unstructured - The interviewer has only a general topic or a few guiding questions and lets the conversation flow naturally.

Answer 29

active - The researcher actively takes part in the situation or activity being studied while observing what happens. passive - The researcher watches without participating, simply observing what happens.

Answer 30

content analysis thematic analysis

Answer 31

To count and categorise words, phrases, or concepts in the data. What is said and how often. More structured and sometimes quantitative (involves counting).

Answer 32

To identify and interpret patterns or themes in the data. What is said and what it means. More interpretive and qualitative (focuses on meaning).

Answer 33

CASP 9 pt checklist

Answer 34

1. problem important and well defined 2. qualitative approach appropriate 3. setting and participants suitably chosen 4. researcher bias addressed 5. data collection methods appropriate and detailed 6. analysis systematic with quality control 7. results credible and important 8. conclusions justified by results 9. findings transferable to other studies

Answer 35

focus on depth, meaning and validity

Answer 36

focus on measurement, numbers and reliability

Answer 37

clinical decision making

Answer 38

cause, effect and relationships

Answer 39

stronger and more generalisable

Answer 40

experimental designs observational studies

Answer 41

testing cause and effect relationships using clinical trials A research design or plan used to test cause-and-effect relationships by controlling and manipulating variables.

Answer 42

P - population of interest I - intervention that causes change C - comparison (control group or placebo) O - outcome (measurement of change with intervention)

Answer 43

using randomised control trials and non-randomised control trials A type of study where researchers introduce an intervention (a treatment, program, or change) to see its effect. type of experimental design

Answer 44

To observe and describe what happens naturally — without changing anything.

Answer 45

To test how well a diagnostic test identifies or rules out a disease or condition. The researcher compares test results with a “gold standard” (the best available method to confirm diagnosis).

Answer 46

nominal ordinal interval ratio

Answer 47

Data are put into categories that have no order. ex. gender, blood type

Answer 48

ordered categories Data have a rank or order ex. Education level (primary, secondary, tertiary)

Answer 49

Data have equal intervals between values, but no true zero. ex. temperature ex. 0 degrees doesn't equal no temperature

Answer 50

Data have equal intervals and a true zero (zero means “none”). ex. height, weight, age, test score

Answer 51

Data that represent groups or categories, not numbers with real meaning. no averages, no fractions, discrete data nominal and ordinal

Answer 52

Data that can take any numerical value within a range — numbers that can be measured, not just counted. more detailed, summary stats, fractions Height, weight, age, temperature, time interval and ratio

Answer 53

education level (primary, secondary, tertiary)

Answer 54

Temperature in °C or °F → The difference between 20°C and 30°C is the same as between 30°C and 40°C, but 0°C doesn’t mean “no temperature.”

Answer 55

weight 0 kg = no weight.

Answer 56

intervention being changed

Answer 57

outcome being measured

Answer 58

intra-related inter-related test-retest alternative / parallel forms

Answer 59

The same person measures or rates the same thing more than once, and results are consistent.

Answer 60

Different people measure or rate the same thing and get similar results.

Answer 61

The same test is given to the same group at two different times, and results are stable. repeated measurements over time

Answer 62

Two different versions of a test that measure the same concept give similar results. using different equipment rather than people, producing same results

Answer 63

descriptive studies analytical studies

Answer 64

cross-sectional surveys (that only describe), case series, case report, case study

Answer 65

To describe what is happening — the characteristics of a population or phenomenon. Observe and report facts — no comparison or testing of hypotheses. Usually summarizes data — frequencies, percentages, averages.

Answer 66

To analyze and find relationships or causes between variables. testing hypothesis and relationships Compare groups and test hypotheses about causes or risk factors. Looks for associations — risk ratios, odds ratios, correlations.

Answer 67

experimental studies case-controlled studies cohort studies cross-sectional study

Answer 68

the combination of both qualitative and quantitative measures together

Answer 69

convergent designs sequential designs multi-phase designs embedded designs

Answer 70

both qualitative and quantitative data is collected at the same time two data sets are analysed separately and then compared or merged ex. Survey + interviews on stress

Answer 71

data collected in 2 phases, one after other explanatory - Quantitative first, qualitative second. exploratory - Qualitative first, quantitative second. ex. Survey → interviews (explanatory) interviews → survey (exploratory)

Answer 72

Combines multiple sequential or convergent studies over time, used for large populations, and complex problems several phases, each phase informing the next ex. Qualitative interviews to explore community needs. Interviews → survey → intervention → follow-up

Answer 73

One data type is primary, one is secondary Enhance or explain primary data other provides secondary role for further analysis interpret analysis on primary not secondary ex. A clinical trial testing a new drug (quantitative) includes patient interviews (qualitative) to explore experiences of side effects.

Answer 74

turning qualitative data into numerical form

Answer 75

turning numerical values into themes

Answer 76

When the quantitative and qualitative results agree or tell the same story. showing consistence (confirming each other)

Answer 77

When the quantitative and qualitative results do NOT agree or show different patterns. contraindications leads to a deeper investigation

Answer 78

1 - dominance and weighing - deciding which method is primary 2 - equal quality - avoiding weak design in either method 3 - researcher expertise - being skilled in both quan and qual data 4 - collaboration - different perspectives and disagreements 5 - resources - more time, effort, money required

Answer 79

entire group to generalise results to

Answer 80

larger group of interest

Answer 81

group researcher actually accesses

Answer 82

subset selected from population

Answer 83

individual chosen for study

Answer 84

detailed list of all participants

Answer 85

1 - probability sampling 2 - non-probability sampling

Answer 86

random and more representative quantitative research

Answer 87

simple random systematic random stratified random cluster sampling multi-stage sampling

Answer 88

Every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected.

Answer 89

Select members at regular intervals from a list after a random start. Decide a sampling interval (k) and pick every kth person.

Answer 90

Divide the population into subgroups (strata) based on a characteristic, then randomly sample from each stratum. ensuring representation of key subgroups.

Answer 91

Divide the population into clusters (groups), randomly select some clusters, and include all members of chosen clusters.

Answer 92

Combines two or more sampling methods in stages. Often, clusters are selected first, then individuals within clusters. narrowing from larger to smaller groups

Answer 93

non-random, less generalisability qualitative research

Answer 94

convenience sampling snowball sampling purposive sampling quota sampling

Answer 95

Select participants who are easily available or accessible. may not be representative of population

Answer 96

Researcher selects participants based on specific characteristics or purpose of the study.

Answer 97

Existing participants refer or recruit others for the study. useful for hidden populations

Answer 98

population divided into subgroups and selected based on specific characteristics (not random) Similar to stratified sampling but non-random

Answer 99

difference between sample results and true population value

Answer 100

sampling error non-sampling error

Answer 101

Happens because you only study a sample, not the whole population.

Answer 102

Happens because of mistakes in the study, not because of sampling (data error/measurement error)

Answer 103

Unreliable results, low power, not representative, Type II errors

Answer 104

Waste of resources, ethical concerns, harder analysis

Answer 105

population size variability margin of error confidence error

Answer 106

false positive (finding an effect which doesn't exist) ex. Concluding a new drug works when it actually doesn’t

Answer 107

false negative (missing the real effect) ex. Concluding a new drug doesn’t work when it actually does.

Answer 108

The chance of detecting a real effect if it exists ex. A clinical trial tests a new drug. If the power is 0.8 (80%), there’s an 80% chance the study will detect a real effect of the drug if it exists.

Answer 109

determine the sample size needed to achieve a desired power. planning tool to decide sample size so your study is likely to detect a real effect. ex. You want to detect a medium effect of a new teaching method on test scores with 80% power at α = 0.05 → power analysis tells you you need 100 students in the study.

Answer 110

To select participants, cases, or sources that can provide detailed and meaningful information to get a deeper understanding to answer questions

Answer 111

The point in data collection when no new information, themes, or insights are emerging from additional data. You keep collecting data until everything starts repeating

Answer 112

numbers, quantitative data

Answer 113

original raw data, unanalysed

Answer 114

summarising sample information A branch of statistics used to summarise, organise, and describe the main features of a dataset.

Answer 115

make conclusions, predictions, or generalisations about a population based on data from a sample.

Answer 116

how spread out the scores are - SD - min/max - range

Answer 117

measures of central tendency measures of dispersion

Answer 118

midpoint between highest and lowest scores - mean - median - mode

Answer 119

applicability to population

Answer 120

equality normality linearity

Answer 121

The spread (variance) of scores in different groups should be approximately equal (comparable) ex. Comparing test scores between two classes — the variation in scores should be similar in both classes.

Answer 122

The data should be approximately normally distributed — forming a bell-shaped curve when plotted. ex. Heights of adult men are roughly normally distributed; most are around the average, few are extremely tall or short.

Answer 123

There should be a straight-line relationship between two variables when using correlation or relationship analysis. ex. The relationship between hours studied and exam scores — as study hours increase, exam scores increase roughly in a straight-line pattern.

Answer 124

null hypothesis alternate hypothesis

Answer 125

A statement that there is no effect, no difference, or no relationship between variables in the population. ex. A new drug has no effect on blood pressure.

Answer 126

A statement that there is an effect, difference, or relationship between variables in the population. ex. A new drug lowers blood pressure

Answer 127

Probability of observing data if the null hypothesis (ex. drug has no effect) is true

Answer 128

the data is statistically significant null hypothesis of no effect is rejected proven to have effect (true effect is likely)

Answer 129

the data is not statistically significant null hypothesis of having no effect is true drug proven to have no effect (effect is not reliable)

Answer 130

Only 2% chance of seeing this result if the drug had no effect drug likely works

Answer 131

A range of values calculated from the sample data that is likely to contain the parameter with a certain level of confidence.

Answer 132

greater precision (don't range over a large number)

Answer 133

The smallest change in a treatment outcome that patients, clinicians, or researchers consider meaningful or important. making treatment worthwhile

Answer 134

designing clinical trials: determining sample size and interpreting results.

Answer 135

might be statistically significant but not meaningful in practice

Answer 136

The variation or differences in results, characteristics, or effects among studies, participants, or data points. Heterogeneity = variation or inconsistency among studies or data.

Answer 137

studies give different results

Answer 138

studies give similar results

Answer 139

ideal human behaviour, helping to distinguish right from wrong

Answer 140

provides ethical framework

Answer 141

any study involving people, data and biological material

Answer 142

own actions respecting individuals right to making their own decisions and actions informed consent and voluntary participation

Answer 143

benefit human kind risk must always be minimised and justified act in ways that benefit participants, maximise good, and minimise harm.

Answer 144

treated fairly fair recruitment and distribution of benefits avoid overburdening groups and exploiting vulnerable populations

Answer 145

to avoid and minimise harm preventing physical, psychological, social and economical approval depends on level of risk

Answer 146

every participant should be treated with honour, worth, and autonomy, acknowledging their rights, values, and choices. special protection measures for vulnerable populations

Answer 147

responsibility of others only taking relevant information Ensuring that information provided by participants is kept secret and only accessible to authorised researchers.

Answer 148

right for participant to choose what happens with the data collected The participant’s right to control access to their personal information and body.

Answer 149

Participants’ identities are not collected or cannot be linked to their data. no identity collected, de-identifying documents

Answer 150

ensuring compliance with national statement responsibility of reviewing research applications membership - academics, lawyers, health professionals etc.

Answer 151

risk-benefit balance justice in recruitment informed consent adequacy confidentiality protection

Answer 152

autonomy beneficence confidentiality veracity justice non-malificience respect for human dignity

Answer 153

telling the truth obligation to tell the truth in research reporting findings honestly in publications deception if necessary, debrief must be done

Answer 154

individual barriers organisational barrier

Answer 155

lack of physical ability lack of confidence lack of time personal resistance (dislike)

Answer 156

lack of resources and support workplace culture devaluing research lack of time

Answer 157

ensuring good evidence is made available motivation - clinicians will adopt evidence if they see benefit

Answer 158

leadership fostering culture of EBP supportive resources, policy, decision making clinical guidelines and integrated pathways

Answer 159

patients preferences and values included in EBP approach and decision making

Answer 160

using evidence without questioning integrity and quality of study thinking world based evidence applies to patient needs study ignoring patient perspective and significance of clinical judgement

Answer 161

guidelines too narrow or broad may be out of date ignoring patient perspectives

Answer 162

too many guidelines limited / expensive access confusing and conflicting evidence

Answer 163

access, education, supportive leadership, motivation

RESEARCH FOR PRACTISE Flashcards

(192 cards)