Research Methods

Question 1

What is a Directional hypothesis

Answer 1

States the direction of the difference/relationship
Also known as a ‘one tailed hypothesis’

Question 2

Non directional hypothesis

Answer 2

Also known as a ‘two-tailed hypothesis”
Doesn’t predict the direction of the difference or relationship

Question 3

Null hypothesis

Answer 3

States that there’s no relationship between the two variables being tested
(One variable doesn’t affect the other)

Question 4

Quantitative data

Answer 4

• Expressed through numbers
• usually gathered through individual scores of participants
• data is open to being analysed

Question 5

Strengths of quantitative data

Answer 5

• simple to analyse
• comparisons between groups can be done easily
• data in numerical form tends to be less objective and open to less bias

Question 6

Weaknesses of quantitative data

Answer 6

• Can’t go into detail with numerical data
• May fail to represent real data

Question 7

What is a correlation

Answer 7

A mathematical technique in which a researcher investigates to find associations between variables, called co-variables

Question 8

What are co-variables

Answer 8

Variables invested between an investigation. E.g weight and height

Question 9

What is positivecorrelation

Answer 9

As one co-variable increase so does the other
E.g the more people in one room the more noises heard

Question 10

Negative correlation

Answer 10

As one co-variable increases the other decreases
E.g the amount of people in 1 room means less space

Question 11

Zero correlation

Answer 11

When there’s no relationship between co-variables
E.g rain in Peru and people in manchester

Question 12

What is qualitative data

Answer 12

• Data expressed through words
• Can be collected through interviews or unstructured interviews
• May take form of written description of thoughts

Question 13

Strengths if qualitative data

Answer 13

• Produces rich data with high levels of detail
• Allows participants to develop their thoughts elaborate on their views

Question 14

Weaknesses of qualitative data

Answer 14

• Time consuming: Collection and analysis can be lengthy and labour intensive
• Subjective: Interpretation of qualitative data can be influenced by researcher bias

Question 15

What is primary data
Aka field research

Answer 15

• Original data is collected by the researcher in the purpose or investigation
• Data is collected through experiments, questionnaires, interviews or observations

Question 16

What is correlation

Answer 16

A statistical method used to measure strength and direction between two variables without implying cause-and-effect

Question 17

What is primary data

Answer 17

Data that is collected directly by the researcher for a specific study
E.g Survey responses, experimental results

Question 18

Strengths of a Primary Data (evaluative points)

Answer 18

• Control: Researchers have control over how data is collected, ensuring it aligns with the research question
• Relevance: Tailored to the specific research question (internal validity)

Question 19

Limitations of Primary data

Answer 19

• Time & Cost: Collecting primary data is resource-intensive
• Bias: Data collection methods can introduce bias

Question 20

What is Secondary data

Answer 20

Data collected by other researchers or organisations that’s used in a new study
E.g Government statistics, existing survey data

Question 21

Strengths of secondary data

Answer 21

• Cost-effective and time-saving alternative to primary research, helping with quick access to large, pre-analysed datasets

Question 22

Weaknesses of qualitative data

Answer 22

• Data can be difficult to interpret
• Data can be tricky to generalise
• Difficult to make comparisons

Question 23

What are the types of sampling methods that can be used

Answer 23

Random sampling = Naming or numbering the target population and then using some raffle method to choose those to make up the sample.

Systematic sampling = Every nth individual is selected from a list or sequence to form a sample, ensuring even and regular intervals between chosen subjects.

Stratified sampling = Dividng participants in sub-groups where they share similar characteristics

Opportunity sampling = Participants are chosen based on their ease of availability and proximity to the researcher

Volunteer sampling = Participants self select themselves to take part in a study. Study typically is advertised to participants

Question 24

Covert and Overt observations

Answer 24

Covert observations: Fewer demand characteristics but more ethical issues involved

Overt observations: More ethical but people can change their behaviours

Question 25

Participant vs non participant observations

Answer 25

Participant: the observer takes part in the activity being observed Non participant: the observer doesn't take part in the activity. Instead he watches from a distance

Question 26

Experimental methods vs Observational methods

Answer 26

1. Psychologists carry out experiments both in the laboratory and in the field (the outside world). Both methods involve the manipulation of an independent variable (iv) and the measurement of a dependent variable (dv). 2. Observational methods involve watching and recording the behaviour of individuals or groups to gather data without direct interference or manipulation of variables

Question 27

Advantages of experimental method

Answer 27

- Manipulation of the IV under controlled conditions allows for cause and effects to be inferred - It's easy to replicate due to the individual procedures

Question 28

Disadvantages of the experimental method

Answer 28

- Ethical problems over deception, consent evasion of privacy, harm etc

Question 29

What are natural observations

Answer 29

It occurs when people's natural behaviour in their natural settings is recorded

Question 30

Advantages of Natural observations

Answer 30

- High in ecological validity - This method is the only appropriate and ethical method (Ecological validity = The extent to which research findings can be applied to real-life, natural settings rather than just the artificial, controlled conditions of a laboratory.)

Question 31

Disadvantages of Natural observations

Answer 31

- Cause and effect can't really be established as there are many unctrolled variables in the "real world" - Ethical concerns -> invasion of privacy -> filmed without consent

Question 32

What are interviews and the types of them

Answer 32

Interviews are pre set questions asked in a fixed order ensuring consistency across all participants Structured interviews: pre set questions are asked in a fixed order, ensuring consistency of responses across all participants Unstructured interviews: The interviewer asks open-ended questions and follows the participant’s responses, allowing for more flexibility and depth

Question 33

What is the difference between open ended and close ended questions

Answer 33

Open-ended questions allow participants to give a free-form text answer and encourage people to come up with more thoughtful and filled-out. Whereas Closed-ended questions: restrict participants to one of a limited set of possible answers.

Question 34

Examples of open-ended questions and closed-ended questions

Answer 34

Open ended questions: *Walk me through a typical day. *Tell me about the last time you used the website Closed ended questions *What’s your job title? *Have you used the website before? (Generally anything along the lines of this is ok)

Question 35

Types of self report techniques

Question 36

Ethical issues that could arise that researchers must have in mind to prevent (Hint: DRIPC)

Answer 36

D: Deception R: Right to withdraw I: Informed consent P: Protection from harm C: Confidentiality and privacy

Question 37

Types of experiments

Answer 37

Lab experiment Field experiment Quasi experiment Natural experiment

Question 38

What is a lab experiments

Answer 38

Lab experiments is a research method conducted in a highly controlled and artificial environment

Question 39

Examples of advantages of lab experiments

Answer 39

1. High Internal Validity (Control): Researchers can precisely control extraneous variables -such as lighting, noise, and distractions - ensuring that the independent variable (IV) causes the change in the dependent variable (DV), not external factors. 2. Replication (Reliability): Procedures are standardized (often using precise instructions and equipment), making it easy for other researchers to repeat the study to check for consistent results. 3. Clear Causal Relationships: Due to strict control, researchers can confidently establish that changes in the independent variable directly cause changes in the dependent variable.

Question 40

Examples of disadvantages of lab experiments

Answer 40

1. Low Ecological Validity (Artificiality): The laboratory setting is unnatural, meaning participants may not act as they would in real life, making it hard to apply findings to everyday situations. 2. Demand Characteristics: Participants often know they are being studied, which can lead them to guess the study's aim and alter their behaviour

Question 41

What are field experiments

Answer 41

It is a research method where an independent variable is manipulated to measure its effect on a dependent variable. It takes place in a real world setting rather than a controlled laboratory

Question 42

Advantages and disadvantages of Field experiments

Answer 42

Advantages - High Ecological Validity: Results are more realistic and easier to generalise to everyday life. -Reduced Demand Characteristics: Participants behave naturally, not as they think the researcher wants them to. (Note: Ecological validity means the extent to which results can be generalised to natural real world findings) Disadvantages - Less Control: Uncontrolled variables (weather, traffic, interruptions) can affect results. - Ethical Issues: Often involves lack of informed consent and deception.

Question 43

What are quasi experiments

Answer 43

A quantitative research method used to estimate causal relationships between variables without using random assignment

Question 44

What are natural experiments

Answer 44

Sudies where the experimenter cannot manipulate the IV, so the DV is simply measured and judged as the effect of an IV.

Question 45

What is a variable

Answer 45

A variable is any characteristic, value or quality that can be controlled, measured or observed in an experiment

Question 46

Independent variables vs Dependent variables

Answer 46

IV aka the cause: The idea that the researcher changes, controls, or uses to group participants to test its effect on another variable DV aka the effect: Dependent Variable: The outcome (result) that is measured to see if it changes in response to the independent variable. The idea is that the IV and DV help establish the cause and effect between two different things