Research methods BW

Question 1

Who sets the ethical guidelines in the UK?

Answer 1

The British Psychological Society (BPS)

Question 2

When was the most recent code of ethics and conduct published?

Answer 2

2021

Question 3

What is the code of ethics and conduct concerned with?

Answer 3

Respect - for the dignity and worth of all persons
Competence - psychologists need to maintain high standards of professionalism
Responsibility - psychologists are responsible for their clients, the general public and the science of psychology
Integrity - psychologists should be honest and accurate

Question 4

What are the ethical guidelines?

Answer 4

Deception
Fully informed consent
Protection of Participants from psychological and physical harm
Right to withdraw
Confidentiality
Privacy

Question 5

What is deception?


Answer 5

Deception means deliberately misleading or withholding information from participants at any stage of the investigation

Question 6

When and why can deception be justified?


Answer 6

If the deception does not cause the participant undue distress, it can be used in order to make a study valid by preventing demand characteristics

Question 7

What are demand characteristics?


Answer 7

Demand characteristics are cues or clues in an investigation which may convey information about the purpose of the research to the participants. This may lead to the participants working out, or thinking they have worked out the hypothesis and in turn may lead to a change in their behaviour or responses.

Question 8

How do you deal with deception?


Answer 8

At the end of a study the participants should be given a full debrief, they should be reassured that their behaviour was normal and should be offered support to restore their health to what it was before the study. They should be offered counselling if needed and they should be made aware that they have the right to withhold their data.

Question 9

What is fully informed consent?


Answer 9

Informed consent involves informing participants about the study so that they can decide if they want to participate or not e.g. aims, the procedure, their rights and what their data will be used for.

Question 10

What does fully informed consent include?

Answer 10

purpose of research
full details of the study
what participants will be required to do
explanation of rights

Question 11

Why might informed consent not be used?

Answer 11

Due to the potential for demand characteristics to occur if participants have all the information about the study

Question 12

How do you deal with consent?


Answer 12

Participants should be issued with a consent form detailing relevant information that might affect their decision to participate. They must sign it assuming that they agree. Children under 16 require parental consent.

Question 13

What are the different types of consent?

Answer 13

Parental consent
Presumptive consent
Prior general consent
Retrospective consent

Question 14

What is parental consent?


Answer 14

If participants are under the age of 16, parents will agree on the child’s behalf

Question 15

What is presumptive consent?


Answer 15

Rather than getting consent from the participants themselves, a similar group of people are asked if the study is acceptable. If this group agrees, then consent of the original participants is presumed

Question 16

What is prior general consent?


Answer 16

Participants give their permission to take part in a number of different studies including one that will involve deception. By consenting, participants are effectively consenting to be deceived.

Question 17

What is retrospective consent?


Answer 17

Participants are asked for their consent during the debrief having already taken part in the study. They may not have been aware of their participation, or they may have been subject to deception.

Question 18

What does it mean by protection of participants from psychological and physical harm?


Answer 18

Investigators have a primary responsibility to protect participants from physical and mental harm during the investigation. Participants should not be placed at any more risk than they would in their daily lives. Participants should not be made to feel embarrassed, inadequate or be placed under undue stress or pressure.

Question 19

How do you deal with any psychological or physical harm of participants?


Answer 19

At the end of the study participants should be given a full debrief involving making participants aware of the aims of the investigation and any details they were not supplied with during the study such as the existence of other groups of experimental conditions. Participants should also be reassured that their behaviour was normal and should be offered counselling if this is needed due to harm being caused. Participants should be able to withdraw and withhold their data or remain confidential.

Question 20

Is the right to withdraw an ethical issue or a solution to ethical issues?


Answer 20

A solution to ethical issues

Question 21

What does the right to withdraw include?

Answer 21

Every participant should know they gave the right to withdraw from the research at any point without reason or consequence
They should know that they can withdraw any of their data
Researchers have a duty to remind participants of their right to withdraw if they see signs of distress
Researchers have a duty to terminate research early if the suspect a participant is suffering any harm

Question 22

What is confidentiality?

Answer 22

Confidentiality refers to the right enshrined in law under the Data protection Act to have any personal data protected

Question 23

How does the BPS deal with confidentiality?

Answer 23

If personal details are held, these must be protected therefore anonymity is usually maintained by recording no personal details. Instead, researchers tend to refer to participants by using initials, numbers or fake names. During the briefing and debriefing, participants are reminded that their data will be protected and that they have the right to remain anonymous.

Question 24

What is privacy?

Answer 24

Privacy is the right that participants have to control the flow of information collected about them. Participants also have a right not to be observed in a private place.

Question 25

What responsibility do ethical committees have?

Answer 25

They have the responsibility to weigh up the costs and benefits of research proposals on participants and society and decide whether the research should go ahead

Question 26

How should cost benefit analysis be conducted?

Answer 26

Costs and benefits should be looked at from the researcher's, participants and society's viewpoints

Question 27

Who is part of an ethical committee?

Answer 27

Experts of the field as well as lay ("normal") people

Question 28

What might happen if a psychologist behaves in an unethical manner?

Answer 28

The BPS will review the research and may decide to bar the person from practicing as a psychologist but they will not be sent to prison.

Question 29

What is qualitative data?

Answer 29

Non-numerical data that is expressed in a participants own words in sentences which include detailed information about a participant's thoughts, feelings and opinions.

Question 30

How might qualitative data be recorded?

Answer 30

Using an audio recording device and then being written out in full as a transcript

Question 31

What type of questions elicit qualitative data?

Answer 31

Open ended question which may include buzz words such as "why?" or "how?" or "can you give any further detail"

Question 32

What is quantitative data?

Answer 32

Numerical data which can be counted easily and converted into a graph to be statistically analysed

Question 33

What type of questions elicit quantitative data?

Answer 33

Questions with fixed choice answers ('yes' or 'no')

Question 34

What methods would produce qualitative data?

Answer 34

Interview, questionnaire and observation

Question 34

What methods would produce quantitative data?

Answer 34

Experiment, interview, questionnaire, correlation and observation

Question 35

What are the strengths of qualitative data?

Answer 35

There is much more richness of detail which allows participants to develop their thoughts, feelings or opinions. Therefore the researcher is more likely to gain a true reflection of the participants worldview and so their data is more valid as it is a valid picture

Question 36

What are the limitations of qualitative data?

Answer 36

It is hard to summarise, compare and analyse written accounts so patterns, trends and conclusions are harder to identify therefore they are less useful when constructing theories

Question 37

What are the strengths of quantitative data?

Answer 37

It is easy to summarise and compare between participants therefore lends itself to statistical analysis. Therefore patterns, trends and conclusions are easy to identify, which is key when constructing theories

Question 38

What are the limitations of quantitative data?

Answer 38

It has much less richness of detail which does not allow a participant to develop their thoughts, feelings or opinions so the researcher is less likely to gain a true reflection of the participants worldview. It is less likely to give a valid picture of the participants views or behaviour, so can be lower in validity

Question 39

What is primary data?

Answer 39

Original data that has been collected specifically for the purpose of the investigation by the researcher. It is data that arrives first hand from the participants themselves. This is sometimes called field research

Question 40

What is secondary research?

Answer 40

Data that has been collected second hand by someone other than the person who is conducting the research. The data is not specifically collected for the aim of the current research, so it is data that already exists before the psychologist begins their investigation. This is sometimes referred to as desk research and it is often the case that secondary data has already been subject to statistical testing therefore significance is known

Question 41

What are some examples of primary data?

Answer 41

Questionnaires, interviews, experiments, observations

Question 42

What are some examples of secondary data?

Answer 42

journal articles, books, websites, government statistics (census)

Question 43

What is meta-analysis?

Answer 43

A process in which the data from many studies, which involved the same aim and methods of data collection, are combined. The combined results may be statistically analysed or may be discussed in qualitative terms

Question 44

What are the strengths of primary data?

Answer 44

This is authentic data obtained from the participants themselves for the purpose of a particular investigation. Questionnaires and interviews can be designed in such a way that they specifically target the information the researcher requires, making the data more internally valid.

Question 45

What are the limitations of primary data?

Answer 45

Producing primary data takes time and effort from the researcher. Conducting and experiment requires planning, preparation and resources compared to secondary data which may be accessed within a matter of minutes.

Question 46

What are the strengths of secondary data?

Answer 46

Often inexpensive and easily accessed requiring minimal effort. When examining secondary data, the researcher may find that the desired information already exists and so there is no need to conduct primary data collection.

Question 47

What are the limitations of secondary data?

Answer 47

Might be substantial variation in the quality and accuracy of secondary data. Information might at first appear to be valuable but may be out of date or incomplete. The content of the data might not match the researcher's needs/objectives. May make data less valid compared to primary data collection

Question 48

What are the strengths of meta-analysis?

Answer 48

Less chance of bias confounding the results due to the use of secondary data. This increases the reliability of the findings as a large number of studies analysed statistically increases the robustness of data. It is also possible to generalise the findings to a wider population due to the number of studies included, increasing the population validity of the results

Question 49

What are the limitation of meta-analysis?

Answer 49

Although the studies are similar, it is not possible to ensure data from different studies was conducted under the same conditions with exactly the same controls, therefore this may reduce the validity of the findings and make it difficult to interpret the results. It may also be difficult for the researcher to access relevant studies so it can be time-consuming. This could lead to the researcher abandoning the research meaning valuable insight into a topic could be lost

Question 50

What are descriptive statistics?

Answer 50

Used to describe the basic features of the data in a study. They provide simple summaries about the sample and the measures. Together with simple graphics analysis, they form the basis of most quantitative analysis of data

Question 51

What are the three descriptive statistics that you need to know about?

Answer 51

Measures of central tendency (mean, median and mode) Measures of dispersion (range and standard deviation) Graphs and charts

Question 52

What are measures of central tendency?

Answer 52

Tell the researcher where the middle point is in a set of data

Question 53

What is the mean?

Answer 53

Known as the arithmetic average, it is calculated by adding up all the scores in a set of data and then dividing them by the total number of scores

Question 54

What is the median?

Answer 54

The middle value of a data set, it is calculated by putting the data in order and finding the middle score. If there is an even number of scores, you should add the two middle scores together and divide by 2

Question 55

What is the mode?

Answer 55

The most common occurring score, it is calculated by putting the data in order and working out which one occurs the most

Question 56

What is a measure of dispersion?

Answer 56

A way of measuring how much variation there is in a data set

Question 57

What is the range?

Answer 57

This works with the median and it is calculated by subtracting the lowest score from the highest score

Question 58

What is standard deviation?

Answer 58

The measure of the spread of scores around the mean. It is the most powerful measure of dispersion as it takes into account all of the scores

Question 59

What does it mean if the standard deviation is high/big?

Answer 59

It means that the data is spread more far away from the mean, indicating more variation in the set of scores

Question 60

What does it mean if the standard deviation is small?

Answer 60

It means that the data was mainly clustered around the mean, indicating less variation in the scores

Question 61

What does it mean if the standard deviation is zero?

Answer 61

It means that all data values were the same so there was no variation at all

Question 62

What are the advantages of the mean?

Answer 62

Most sensitive of measures of central tendency as it includes all of the scores. This means it is more representative of the data as a whole

Question 63

What are the disadvantages of the mean?

Answer 63

It is easily distorted by extreme values therefore it may not represent the average of the data set as a whole

Question 64

What are the advantages of the median?

Answer 64

Not affected by extreme scores so it can be more representative of the overall data set

Question 65

What are the disadvantages of the median?

Answer 65

Less sensitive than the mean as it does not include all the scores in the final calculation so it may not be as representative as the mean

Question 66

What are the advantages of the mode?

Answer 66

Useful for categorical data as it is the only way to identify the average/most common value or score

Question 67

What are the disadvantages of the mode?

Answer 67

Very basic measure that may not represent the data set as a whole

Question 68

What are the advantages of the range?

Answer 68

It is easy to calculate

Question 69

What are the disadvantages of the range?

Answer 69

Only takes account of the two most extreme values and this may be unrepresentative of the data set as a whole

Question 70

What are the advantages of standard deviation?

Answer 70

Very precise measure of dispersion compared to the range as it includes all the values in the data set

Question 71

What are the disadvantages of standard deviation?

Answer 71

Can be distorted by extreme values

Question 72

What are correlations?

Answer 72

Non-experimental method designed to investigate the strength and direction of a relationship between two co-variables (no IV or DV)

Question 73

Why might psychologists use correlations instead of lab experiments?

Answer 73

It might not be practical or ethical to manipulate certain variables in a lab environment

Question 74

What can correlation be used for?

Answer 74

As variables in correlation are measured and not manipulated, this means that correlations cannot be used to infer causation (cause and effect) instead a relationship between covariables can be established

Question 75

What is a correlation coefficient?

Answer 75

A number between +1 and -1 which represents the strength and direction of a relationship (association) between two co-variables

Question 76

What will a hypothesis for a correlation state?

Answer 76

that there will be a relationship between two variables

Question 77

What is the writing frame for an experimental hypothesis for a correlation?

Answer 77

There will be a [direction if it's a directional hypothesis] relationship between [covariable 1] (measured by [something]) and [covariable 2] (measured by [something])

Question 78

What is the writing frame for a null hypothesis for a correlation?

Answer 78

There will be no relationship between [covariable 1] (measured by [something]) and [covariable 2] (measured by [something]) any relationship is due to chance factors

Question 79

What is the only way of presenting a correlation in the form of a descriptive statistic?

Answer 79

A scattergram/graph

Question 80

What are the three things to mention when describing results on a scattergraph?

Answer 80

Strong/negative correlation Between variable 1 and 2 Which means that...

Question 81

What shape line will represent a curvilinear realtionship?

Answer 81

A bell-shaped curve

Question 82

What is an example of a curvilinear relationship?

Answer 82

Anxiety and performance

Question 83

What are the advantages of correlations?

Answer 83

Useful as a preliminary technique allowing researchers to identify a link that can be investigated further dedicating more time and money to it. They can be used to research topics that are sensitive or would otherwise be unethical as there is no deliberate manipulation of variables

Question 84

What are the disadvantages of correlations?

Answer 84

Only identify a link, not which variable causes which. Therefore, they are unable to establish cause and effect. As variables are not manipulated or controlled, there might be a third variable that is influencing one of the covariables without being considered [make sure to give an idea of a third variable in your answer]

Question 85

Why do psychologists often display measures of central tendency and dispersion in a graph?

Answer 85

Because it is easier to grasp the significance of the statistics in visual form

Question 86

What does the x-axis display?

Answer 86

The independent variable

Question 87

What does the y-axis display?

Answer 87

The frequency

Question 88

What are the four scales that variables can be grouped in to?

Answer 88

Nominal (frequency count data) Ordinal (scores in rank order) Interval (a continuous scale with no absolute zero) Ratio (a continuous scale with an absolute zero)

Question 89

What is nominal level data?

Answer 89

Categorical data that has no individual scores

Question 90

Which measures of central tendency and dispersion does nominal level data include?

Answer 90

Mode and range

Question 91

How can nominal level data be displayed?

Answer 91

In a bar chart and sometimes a pie chart

Question 92

What is ordinal level data?

Answer 92

Data that can be ordered or ranked and includes individual scores of participants

Question 93

Which measures of central tendency and dispersion does ordinal level data include?

Answer 93

Mode, median and range

Question 94

How can ordinal level data be displayed?

Answer 94

Bar chart and sometimes a pie chart

Question 95

What is interval level data?

Answer 95

Includes individual scores and uses universal measurements with equal intervals between (e.g. cm). This is the most scientific and sophisticated

Question 96

Which measures of central tendency and dispersion does interval level data include?

Answer 96

Mean and standard deviation

Question 97

How can interval level data be displayed?

Answer 97

Histogram, boxplot and line graph

Question 98

What is a bar chart?

Answer 98

A graphical representation of a categorical data set in which a rectangle or bar is drawn over each category or class. Often used to show descriptive statistics (percentages or ratios) and use nominal data

Question 99

Do bars touch in a bar chart?

Answer 99

No because the data is not related and is not continuous

Question 100

What is a histogram?

Answer 100

A graphical representation of data that shows the distribution and frequency of values in a dataset

Question 101

Do bars touch in a histogram?

Answer 101

Yes because it is continuous data

Question 102

What is a line graph?

Answer 102

A way of displaying data to easily see a trend over time

Question 103

How many sets of data can be displayed on a line graph?

Answer 103

one or more

Question 104

What are scattergraphs only used for?

Answer 104

For displaying strength and direction of a correlation

Question 105

What is normal distribution?

Answer 105

The predicted distribution when considering an equally likely set of results

Question 106

What are the features of a normal distribution?

Answer 106

- Mean, median and mode are all in the exact same midpoint. - Distribution is symmetrical around the midpoint. - Dispersion of scores/measurements either side of the mid-point is consistent and can be expressed in standard deviations. - 34.1% of people will lie withing one standard deviation below the mean. - The two tails will never touch the x-axis

Question 107

What shape is the curve of a normal distribution?

Answer 107

Bell-shaped

Question 108

What is a positive/right skewed distribution?

Answer 108

When the mean is higher (furthest right) than the median and mode

Question 109

What is a negative/left skewed distribution?

Answer 109

When the mean is lower (furthest left) than the median and mode

Question 110

When using our feet to think about skewed distribution, which toe represents what?

Answer 110

Big toe = mode Little toe = mean

Question 111

What is content analysis?

Answer 111

A way of transforming qualitative data into quantitative data by creating coding units and reviewing the qualitative data whilst tallying each time a theme/category occurs

Question 112

What is the procedure for content analysis?

Answer 112

1. Data is collected 2. Researcher reads through/examines the data to make themselves familiar with it 3. The researcher identifies coding units which are standardised and do not overlap e.g. [] 4. All data is analysed by applying the coding unit 5. A tally is made of the number of times that each coding unit appears, this can then be analysed statisticlly

Question 113

How can you check the reliability of content analysis or codes?

Answer 113

Follow the procedure of content analysis and then: 1. A second researcher is trained on how to apply the coding units 2. The second researcher analyses the same data set independently (not influenced) using the same categories 3. The two researchers come together and compare their results to see if they are similar 4. The analysis is reliable if the correlational coefficient between the researchers is 0.8 or higher

Question 114

What are the strengths of content analysis?

Answer 114

It can be a reliable way to analyse qualitative data as the coding units, once operationalised, are less open to interpretation and so are applied in the same way over time and by different researchers. It produces quantitative data which is easy to statistically analyse especially if it can be drawn on a graph. This makes it easier to make comparisons and draw conclusions

Question 115

What are the limitations of content analysis?

Answer 115

A limitation is that because it reduces rich detailed information into simple numbers, it may lose some of its meaning so researchers will not be able to gain as deep an understanding from the quantitative data obtained A researcher creates the categories or codes which means the research could be biased. A researcher may unintentionally create codes that when applied to the data, helps to confirm their hypothesis. Therefore the technique is open to investigator bias which reduces the validity of the technique.

Question 116

What is economic psychology?

Answer 116

When researchers investigate the effects of social, cognitive and emotional factors on economic decisions

Question 117

When questions ask about the economic implications of a psychological discovery, think about:

Answer 117

wages tax work burden childcare healthcare transport spending money