1
Q
What is peer review?
A
Peer review is the process by which research is scrutinised by expert ‘peers’ to check the quality and validity of the methods used before publication.
2
Q
What is the scientific method?
A
Observations, testable hypothesis, design and conduct a study to test the hypothesis, draw conclusions, peer review, propose theory
3
Q
What is an aim?
A
An aim is a general statement about the purpose of an investigation. A research investigation always needs an aim to give it a clear focus
4
Q
How do you write an aim?
A
An aim is usually phrased as: ‘To investigate the relationship between x and y’ or ‘To find out whether x affects y’
5
Q
What is a hypothesis?
A
A hypothesis is a very specific, testable statement or prediction regarding the outcome of the investigation
6
Q
What is meant by operationalisation?
A
Defining a variable in a way that makes it measurable and testable
7
Q
What are the two types of hypotheses?
A
Experimental and null
8
Q
What are the two types of experimental hypotheses?
A
Non-directional and directional
9
Q
What do experimental hypothesis predict?
A
That there will be an effect/difference or relationship found
10
Q
What is a non-directional hypothesis?
A
A more general hypothesis that simply states that there will be an effect/difference or relationship. Generally this type of hypothesis is used if it is a new area of research or there has been research with inconclusive findings
11
Q
What is a directional hypothesis?
A
A more specific hypothesis that predicts the direction of the findings. It is more likely to be directional if there has been previous research with a conclusive outcome
12
Q
What is an example of a non-directional hypothesis?
A
“Age, in years, will affect how many word can be correctly recalled from the list”
13
Q
What is an example of a directional hypothesis?
A
“Younger participants will recall more words correctly from the list than older aged participants”
14
Q
What is a null hypothesis?
A
A hypothesis that predicts that there will be no effect/difference, or no relationship found and that any effects are due to chance factors
15
Q
How should you always phrase a null hypothesis?
A
There will be no significant (effect/difference/relationship) in…any differences are due to chance factors
16
Q
What is the independent variable?
A
A variable that is manipulated or controlled by the researcher in an experiment. It is the variable that is changed or varied in order to observe it’s effect on the dependent variable
17
Q
What is the dependent variable?
A
A dependent variable is the variable that is measured or observed in an experiment and it’s value is presumed to depend on the independent variable
18
Q
What are extraneous variables?
A
Extraneous variables are unwanted/nuisance factors in a study that, if not accounted for, could negatively affect the data subsequently collected, this could potentially prevent researchers from finding the effect of the independent variables on the dependent variables.
19
Q
What are demand characteristics?
A
Demand characteristics are cues or clues in an investigation which may convey information about the purpose of the research to the participants. This may lead to participants working out, or thinking they have worked out, the hypothesis. This in turn, may lead to change in their behaviour or responses consciously or unconsciously.
20
Q
People do not show demand characteristics they are…
A
…exposed to demand characteristics
21
Q
What is social desirability?
A
Participants’ behaviour is distorted as they modify this in order to be seen in a positive light.
22
Q
What is the “please you” effect?
A
When participants change their behaviour to seem good to the researcher and try to help their study
23
Q
What is the “screw you” effect?
A
When participants change their behaviour to purposefully disrupt the results of the study
24
Q
What can a researcher do to reduce demand characteristics?
A
- The single blind procedure
- Deception
25
What is the single blind procedure?
When the participant doesn't know which condition of the research they are taking part in (experimental or control group)
26
How does deception reduce demand characteristics?
Giving a false hypothesis to the participants reduces the chance that they will guess the real hypothesis and change their behaviour to help or hinder the research
27
What are investigator effects?
Investigator effects are aspects of the investigator and their presence that can influence the participants or their responses
28
What are examples of investigator effects?
1. age
2. gender
3. accent
4. personality and demeanor
5. ethnicity
6. attractiveness
7. experimental bias (researcher only seeing what they want to see)
8. communication
29
How can you limit investigator effects?
1. Double blind procedure
2. Standardised instructions
30
What is a double blind procedure?
When neither the participants nor the researcher having contact with the participants knows which condition is the experimental or the control condition
31
What are standardised instructions?
Standardised instructions are instructions given to participants that are written down so that the investigator can't give extra/less information to different groups. Where possible, the participants should read these instructions to eliminate the effect of the tone of voice.
32
What are control groups and why are they used?
A control group is a group in an experiment that does not have an independent variable applied but otherwise should be treated the same. This allows the effect of the independent variable to be measured by comparison
33
How can an investigator control for extraneous variables in investigations?
1. Random allocation to conditions via the method of randomisation
2. Counterbalancing
3. Randomisation
4. Standardised procedures
5. Standardised instructions
6. Single blind technique
7. Double blind technique
8. Experimental design
34
What does random allocation to conditions via the method of randomisation mean and what does this do?
Participants have the same chance of being in one condition as any other. This means any participant variables are divided equally across all conditions which reduces investigator bias
35
What is counterbalancing and what does it do?
Attempts to control order effects in repeated measures design. This means that order effects, such as learning or fatigue, are balanced across the two conditions
36
What is randomisation and what does it do?
Using chance whenever possible (e.g. picking out of a hat). This reduces investigator bias and selection bias
37
What are standardised procedures and what do they do?
When the procedure is carried out in the same way each time. This means that investigator effects/bias and demand characteristics are less likely.
38
What are standardised instructions and what do they do?
When the same instructions are given to every participant. This means that investigator effects/bias and demand characteristics are less likely
39
What is the single blind procedure and what does it do?
This is when participants don't know which condition they are in, or the aim of the research. This means that demand characteristics are less likely
40
What is the double blind procedure and what does it do?
This is when participants and the experimenter don't know which condition is which, or the aim of the research. This means that demand characteristics and investigator effects are less likely
41
What is reliability?
The extent to which a method of measurement or test produces CONSISTENT findings
42
What are the two ways of measuring reliability?
1. Test-retest method
2. Calculate inter-observer reliability
43
What is the test-retest method?
This involves administering the same test or questionnaire on different occasions with sufficient time between and then comparing the results. If there is a correlation co-efficient of 0.8 and above that indicates the results are highly reliable
44
What is inter-observer reliability?
When 2 or more observers are involved in observing behaviour in order to reduce subjectivity bias. Behavioural categories should be discussed and agreed before the study. A pilot study should be carried out to check that the behaviour categories are used in the same way. Then the two observers must watch the same events but record data independently using a tally before comparing their data and finding the correlation to see if the data is strong (0.8) and therefore reliable
45
How can questionnaires be made more reliable?
By replacing open questions with closed so that there is less ambiguity, therefore more consistency without misinterpretation
46
How can interviews be made more reliable?
More structured interviews can be used by using fixed questions so there is less ambiguity. Also the conversation can be audio recorded so material is not missed
47
How can experiments be made more reliable?
Conducting experiments in a lab increases control over variables so replication is easier, therefore reliable findings are more likely if repeated as there is more control over extraneous variables.
48
How can observations be made more reliable?
Ensuring categories are operationalised and providing tally charts for observers making sure all researchers collect data in the same way. Video observation will also increase reliability as material can be played back
49
What is validity?
The extent to which a study, test or measurement technique measure what it intended (the effect of IV). It also refers to whether an observed effect is genuine and can it be generalised beyond the research setting within which it was found
50
What are the two main types of validity?
Internal and external
51
What is internal validity?
The extent to which the test/measure measures what it intends. To what extent the effects of the study are genuine and are caused by the change in or manipulation of the IV
52
What is internal validity also known as?
Experimental validity
53
If there is lots of control in an experiment, is validity high or low?
High
54
What is external validity?
The extent to which findings of a study can be generalised to other situations (ecological validity), other groups of people (population validity) or to other time periods (temporal validity)
55
What does generalise mean?
The extent to which you can apply your findings to the larger population or different contexts beyond the conditions of the research study
56
What factors might reduce internal validity?
Extraneous variables
Non-random assignment
Experimental bias
57
What are the four main types of external validity?
Temporal, ecological, population and cultural
58
What is temporal validity?
The issue of whether findings from a particular study or concept within a particular theory hold true over time
59
What is ecological validity?
The extent to which findings from a research study can be generalised to other settings and situations
60
What is population validity?
Refers to whether the group of participants in the study (the sample) accurately represent the population (the group the researcher wants to apply the results to)
61
What factors might reduce external validity?
Sampling bias (if the sample is not representative of the population, the results can't be generalised)
Ecological validity (if the conditions are very artificial the results may not be able to be generalised)
62
What are the two ways of measuring validity?
Face validity and Concurrent validity
63
When is face validity the answer to a question?
When concurrent validity can't be used
64
What is face validity?
Face validity is when a measure is scrutinised to determine whether it looks right and appears to measure what it aims to measure. Those asked to rate the face validity could be participants or others in the position to offer judgement such as experts in that field. Face validity could be established by using a rating scale to measure the suitability of the test in question (high suggests valid test)
65
What is concurrent validity?
The concurrent validity of a test/scale is demonstrated when the results obtained are very close to or match those obtained on another recognised and well-established test for the same variable. If there is a high positive correlation of +0.8 between the two measures this would indicate concurrent validity
66
How can validity be improved?
1. Experimental research
2. Questionnaires
3. Observations
4. Qualitative methods
67
How can experimental research be conducted to improve validity?
There are many different things that can be taken into account, for example using control groups allows the researcher to better assess whether it was the independent variable that caused changes in the dependent variable. Also making sure procedures are standardised minimises the effects investigator effects
68
How can questionnaires be conducted to improve validity?
By assuring respondents that all data submitted will remain anonymous
69
How can observations be conducted to improve validity?
By using covert observation so that behaviour is likely to be natural and authentic
70
How can qualitative methods be conducted to improve validity?
Triangulation can be used, where several different sources of evidence can be used (interviews, diaries, observations). The findings can be compared to see if there are any similarities
71
What is the sample?
The participants taking part in a study
72
What is the target population?
The entire group of individuals or entities that researchers are interested in studying and about whom they want to draw conclusions. It's the larger group from which a sample is taken for a study
73
What does generalisation mean?
The extent to which findings and conclusions from a particular investigation can be broadly applied to the population. This is possible if the sample of participants is representative of the population
74
Why is sampling important?
As it can directly affect the external validity of results. i.e. how easy it is to generalise the findings to the target population or the general population
75
Which two words should you try to include in a question about sampling?
Representative and generalisable
76
What is random sampling?
Where all members of the target population have an EQUAL CHANCE of being selected
77
What are the strengths of random sampling?
Free of researcher bias (prevents them choosing people who they think will support their hypothesis)
78
How is random sampling carried out?
1. A complete list off all members of the target population is obtained
2. The sample is generated through use of a random method. e.g. picking names out of a hat
79
What are the limitations of random sampling?
It is difficult and time consuming as the researcher may have to wait for a list of participants and it may be hard to obtain a list of all people in the target population . Also you may still end up with a sample that is unrepresentative e.g. all females
80
What is opportunity sampling?
Where a researcher decides to select anyone who happens to be available at the time and location of the study
81
How is opportunity sampling carried out?
The researcher approaches and asks whoever is around at the time of their study if they would like to participate. If they agree, they form part of the sample
82
What are the strengths of opportunity sampling?
It is convenient and saves time/effort compared to random sampling. The researcher doesn't have to wait to obtain a list of the target population and then wait for potential participants to respond
83
What are the limitations of opportunity sampling?
Suffers from bias. The sample is not representative of the target population as it is drawn from a specific area. Researcher bias may also affect the population as the researcher may unconsciously choose participants who look like they will support the hypothesis and avoid participants that look "unhelpful"
84
What is volunteer sampling?
Involves participants selecting themselves to be part of the sample (self-selected sampling)
85
How is volunteer sampling carried out?
A researcher may place an advert in a public place (newspaper or notice board).
The advert will have details of how to respond.
Those participants that choose to take part, sign up or otherwise respond and will be used in the study
86
What are the strengths of volunteer sampling?
Collecting the sample is easy as it requires minimal input from the researcher and it is also less time consuming than other methods as participants come to you.
Can be used for socially sensitive research topics which may be inappropriate to approach people about. Also it would be impossible to gain a list of the target population for reasons of doctor confidentiality.
87
What are the limitations of volunteer sampling?
Volunteer bias. Asking for volunteers may attract a certain type or 'profile' of person (e.g. interest in the topic). So the sample may not be fully representative of the target population as the target population would include other types of people (e.g. uninterested). This lowers the population validity
88
What is stratified sampling?
A sophisticated sampling technique in which the composition of the sample reflects the proportions of people in certain subgroups (strata) within the target population
89
How is stratified sampling carried out?
The researcher first identifies the different strata that make up the population. Then the proportions needed for the sample to be representative are worked out. Then the sample is selected at random from each strata
90
What are the strengths of stratified sampling?
Avoids researcher bias as once the characteristics of the population have been identified, the participants to make up the correct numbers are randomly selected so the researcher cannot choose participants that will confirm their hypothesis.
Should have high population validity as the sample should be representative which means it can be generalised for more valid conclusions and theories
91
What are the limitations of stratified sampling?
- Difficult/impossible to reflect exact proportions which make up the target population.
- Only some of the characteristics will be accounted for.
- More time consuming than random sampling as the researcher must conduct research to identify percentages of the characteristics in the target population, then sort their sample of participants into these groups and work out the correct numbers to make up those proportions in their sample, then randomly select the correct numbers from their sample
92
What is systematic sampling?
When every nth member of the target population is selected
93
How is systematic sampling carried out?
A sampling frame is produced which is a list of people in the target population organised in some way (e.g. alphabetical order). A sampling system is nominated (e.g. every 3rd person) or this interval may be determined randomly to reduce bias. The researcher then works through the sampling frame until the sample is completed.
94
What are the strengths of systematic sampling?
Avoids researcher bias as once the system for choosing participants has been established the researcher has not control over who is selected. If the researcher selects the system randomly, they have no influence over this either. This means the researcher's expectations cannot influence the results, improving validity.
95
What are the limitations of systematic sampling?
The sample generated may not be as representative as when random sampling is used because not all members of the target population have an equal chance of being selected which reduces generalisabilty of the findings (external validity)
96
What is the experimental method?
It is the method used to manipulate variables and determine cause and effect
97
What are the four experimental methods?
Lab
Field
Natural
Quasi
98
What is a laboratory experiment?
An experiment conducted in a lab under highly controlled conditions. The independent variable is manipulated directly by the researcher. Procedures are standardised and participants are randomly allocated to conditions. E.g Dement and Kleitman (1957) - sleep
99
What is a field experiment?
An experiment that is conducted in a more naturalistic, real-world situation. The independent variable is manipulated directly by the researcher. Participants are usually randomly allocated to conditions. E.g. Feshbach and Singer (1971) - aggression due to exposure to violent TV
100
What is a natural experiment?
When the independent variable varies naturally, the experimenter does not manipulate it, but records the effect on the dependent variable. E.g. Joy (1977) - aggression due to the introduction of TV
101
What is a quasi experiment?
When the researcher takes advantage of pre-existing differences in the participants such as sex, or another aspect that the researcher has no control or such as a participants' occupation or whether they suffer from a particular illnesss or not. E.g. Griffiths (1944) - cognitive differences between gamblers and non gamblers
102
What are the advantages of lab experiments?
- High control over variables (high internal validity)
- Replication is more possible than other experimental methods due to high control (no new extraneous variables). This allows reliability to be checked
103
What are the disadvantages of lab experiments?
- May lack ecological validity (artificial environment) so behaviour may not be normal so can't be generalised
- Participants being aware that they are in a lab can lead to unnatural behaviour (demand characteristics) and can lower internal validity
104
What are the advantages of field experiments?
- High ecological validity due to natural environment so behaviour is more valid and authentic
- Independent variable is manipulated so there is more control
105
What are the disadvantages of field experiments?
- Could be affected by extraneous variables (due to natural setting), this means that cause and effect may be hard to establish and precise replication is difficult
- There may be some ethical issues especially if participants do not know they are being studied (invasion of privacy)
106
What are the advantages of natural experiments?
- Provide opportunities for research that may not otherwise be undertaken for practical or ethical reasons
- Often have high ecological validity because they involve studying real-life issues and problems as they happen
107
What are the disadvantages of natural experiments?
- Naturally occurring events may only happen very rarely which reduces research opportunities. This may also limit the scope for generalising findings to other similar situations
- Participants may not be randomly allocated to experimental conditions (only applies when there is an independent groups design). This means the researcher might be less sure whether the IV affected the DV
108
What are the advantages of quasi experiments?
- Often carried out under controlled conditions so share the same strengths as a lab experiment (high control of variables). Therefore the researcher can ensure that any effect on the DV is due to the manipulation of IV. This means we can be confident about cause and effect (high internal validity)
- Replication is more possible than in other types of experiment as there are high levels of control. This ensures that new extraneous variable are not introduced when repeating an experiment. Replication is vital to check the results are valid and not just a one off
109
What are the disadvantages of quasi experiments?
- Participants can not be randomly allocated to conditions therefore there may be participants variable so the IV may not be the only thing affecting the DV
- Participants may be aware of being studied as conditions can only include variations that occur naturally. So participants may change their behaviour which will lower internal validity
110
What is experimental design?
Refers to how a researcher places their participants in the different conditions of their experiment
111
What is an independent groups design?
Participants are allocated to one condition only, usually at random
112
What is a repeated measures design?
When all participants take part in all conditions of the experiment
113
What is a matched pairs design?
When participants are matched closely with another on key characteristics which are relevant to the experiment. Each participant is then randomly allocated to a condition, with their matched pair in the other condition.
114
What are the advantages of independent groups design?
- Demand characteristics are less likely to have an effect.
- There are no order effects
- Only one version of the test materials is needed
115
What are the disadvantages of independent groups design?
- Participant variables are likely
- More participants are needed
116
How can the disadvantages of independent groups design be reduced?
Through the use of random allocation
117
What are the advantages of repeated measures design?
- Fewer participants are needed
- There are no participant variables
118
What are the disadvantages of repeated measures design?
- Order effects may occur
- Demand characteristics are more likely to have an effect
- Two versions of the test materials may be needed
119
How can the disadvantages of repeated measures design be reduced?
Through the use of counterbalancing
120
What are the advantages of matched pairs design?
- Demand characteristics are less likely to have an effect
- There are no order effects
- Only one version of the test materials are needed
121
What are the disadvantages of matched pairs design?
- More participants are needed
- Some participant variables remain
- It is time consuming to match participants
122
How can the disadvantages of matched pairs design be reduced?
They can't be reduced as you can't truly match anyone
123
What are the 6 non-experimental methods?
1. Observations
2. Questionnaires
3. Interviews
4. Correlations
5. Content analysis
6. Case studies
124
What are the 6 types of observations?
1. Naturalistic
2. Controlled
3. Participant
4. Non-participant
5. Disclosed (overt)
6. Undisclosed (covert)
125
What is a naturalistic observation?
When the behaviour is observed in the natural setting. The psychologist doesn't influence the behaviour of those being observed
126
What is a controlled observation?
When the psychologist attempts to control some variables. Usually in a lab.
127
What is a participant observation?
When the researcher actually joins the group they are observing and takes part in their activities
128
What is a non-participant observation?
When the psychologist observes the group from outside without joining in with their activities or behaviour patterns
129
What is a disclosed (overt) observation?
When the participants being observed know they are being observed for the purpose of research
130
What is a undisclosed (covert) observation?
When the researcher doesn't inform the participants they are being observed
131
What are the strengths of naturalistic observation?
High ecological validity as behaviour will be more natural due to normal environment so findings can be generalised to real life situations
132
What are the weaknesses of naturalistic observation?
Lack of control makes replication difficult making it less scientific as reliability can't be checked. Also, there may be many uncontrolled variables which make it hard to judge patterns of behaviour which could affect internal validity
133
What are the advantages of controlled observation?
Higher control over extraneous variables makes replication easier so reliability can be checked. This increases the internal validity and makes the research more scientific
134
What are the disadvantages of controlled observation?
Low ecological validity as findings cannot be generalised to real life situations as behaviour was studies in an artificial environment. Effects of demand characteristics ae also more likely
135
What are the advantages of participant observation?
The researcher can experience the situation as the participants do which will give them insight into the lives of the participants which could increase the validity of the findings.
136
What are the disadvantages of participant observation?
The researcher may come to identify too strongly with those they are studying and lose objectivity
137
What are the advantages of non-participant observation?
Allows the researcher to maintain an objective psychological distance from the participants so there is less danger of them losing objectivity. Also reduced investigator effects as the presence of the researcher will not change the dynamics of the group (social desirability)
138
What are the disadvantages of non-participant observation?
The researcher may lose the valuable insight to be gained in a particular observation as they are too far removed from the people and behaviour studying
139
What are the advantages of overt observation?
More ethically acceptable as participants are aware that they are being observed and have given their consent so there is no deception and they can withdraw at any time
140
What are the disadvantages of overt observation?
Participants may change their behaviour because they know they are being observed (demand characteristics). This could reduce the internal validity of the research
141
What are the advantages of covert observation?
Participants do not know they are being observed so it removes the problem of participant reactivity and keeps behaviour natural which increases the validity
142
What are the disadvantages of covert observation?
Fully informed consent and deception may be questioned as people may not wish to have their behaviours observed and recorded. So retrospective consent needs to be gained
143
What are the two types of observational design?
Structured and unstructured
144
What is a structured observation?
When the researcher will prepare a tally chart with behavioural categories that they will look for. They will tally mark each time they observe the behaviour producing quantitative data. (operationalising behaviour)
145
What is an unstructured observation?
When the observer notes down the nature of key behaviours as and when they occur. This produces qualitative data. (more descriptive)
146
What are the advantages of structured observations?
Using behavioural categories makes recording of data easier and more systematic. The data produced is more likely numerical which means analysing and comparing the behaviour is easier
147
What are the disadvantages of structured observations?
The data may be less rich and detailed as some behaviours may be overlooked due to set categories.
148
What are the advantages of unstructured observations?
They produce rich and detailed data which can give more insight into participants' behaviour.
149
What are the disadvantages of unstructured observations?
Tend to produce qualitative data which may be difficult to analyse. A content analysis may be needed to convert the qualitative data to quantitative data which can lead to loss of detail.
150
What are behavioural categories?
Breaking the target behaviour into several categories that can be tallied. The categories must not overlap and should be standardised. They should also be very precise so that they are measurable (operaionalised).
151
What are the advantages of behavioural categories?
Can make data collection more structured and objective as long as categories are clear and unambiguous.
152
What are the disadvantages of behavioural categories?
Data can be unreliable if there are issues with the behavioural categories so clear operationalisation is needed to make sure categories are as clear and unambiguous as possible. The categories must be observable, measurable and self-evident, if not inter-observer reliability may be reduced
153
What are the two sampling methods for observations/behaviour?
Event sampling and time sampling
154
What is event sampling?
Counting the number of times a certain behaviour occurs in a target individual or group over a certain time period e.g. over 10 mins
155
What is time sampling?
Recording behaviour within a pre-established time frame. e.g every 10 mins for 1 min
156
What are the advantages of event sampling?
Useful when the target behaviour or event happens quite infrequently and could be missed if time sampling is used
157
What are the disadvantages of event sampling?
If the specified event is too complex, the observer may overlook important details
158
What are the advantages of time sampling?
It is effective in reducing the number of observations that have been made as the observer is only sampling selected time intervals
159
What are the disadvantages of time sampling?
The instances when behaviour is sampled may be unrepresentative as a whole, the researcher might miss important behaviours due to only observing at a specific time
160
What are the two self-report techniques?
Questionnaires and interviews
161
What are questionnaires?
A series of pre-prepared questions used to gather data from large samples of participants in a short amount of time
162
What is an open question?
A question that does not have a fixed range of answers and respondents are free to answer in any way they wish
163
What is a closed question?
A question that offers a fixed number of responses e.g. yes or no
164
What scale is often used for closed questions?
Likert scale
165
What are the advantages of open questions?
Invites rich and detailed responses (qualitative) which allows the researcher to gain a deeper understanding
166
What are the disadvantages of open questions?
Tends to produce qualitative data which is hard to analyse
167
What are the advantages of closed questions?
Produces quantitative data which is easy to analyse
168
What are the disadvantages of closed questions?
Quantitative data lacks depth and detail
169
What are the strengths of questionnaires?
- cost effective
- gather large amount of data due to wide distribution
- completed without researcher being present
- usually straightforward to analyse
- lends itself to statistical analysis and comparisons between groups
- less likely to get investigator effects
170
What are the limitations of questionnaires?
- social desirability may lead to untruthful responses
- response bias (respondents answer in a similar way throughout e.g. always ticking yes)
- acquiescence bias is a from of response bias which involves the tendency to agree with questions regardless of the content of the question
171
Why does response bias often happen?
Because respondents complete the questionnaire too quickly and fail to read the questions correctly
172
What is an interview?
A questioning technique which involves asking questions in a face-face situation. The interviewer will enter with the aim of finding info on a particular subject
173
What is a structured interview?
When the interviewer has predetermined the questions they want to ask. The exact same wording and ordering is used for every interviewee (standardised).
174
What is an unstructured interview?
More open in nature, the interviewer asks questions in response to the interviewee's previous answer. However, the researcher is mindful of steering the interview towards topics the researcher needs data on.
175
What are most interviews commonly a combination of?
Unstructured and structured forms of interview with a few predetermined questions but the ability to change the wording/order to suit the progression of the interview. The researcher may also ask follow up questions to gain more info on particular topics.
176
What are the strengths of structured interviews?
They are straightforward to replicate and reduced differences between interviewers due to standardised format
177
What are the limitations of structured interviews?
- Not possible for interviewers to deviate from the topic or explain which limits richness of data and anything unexpected.
- Takes money and time due to training
- Social desirability bias
- Requires interviewer and interviewee require skills of communication, memory and honesty
178
What are the strengths of unstructured interviews?
- Flexible and relaxed
- Can follow up on points
- Can gain more insight into the worldview of participant and elicit unexpected info
- Rich, diverse and detailed data
- Suited to sensitive and complex issues
- Can be used as part of a pilot study
179
What are the limitations of unstructured interviews?
- Increased risk of interviewer bias
- Analysis could be hard especially due to excess irrelevant info
- Social desirability may lead to lies
- Takes time and money due to training
- Hard to make comparisons
- Requires interviewer and interviewee require skills of communication, memory and honesty
180
What are case studies?
An in-depth investigation, description and analysis of an individual, small group, institution or event using a range of methods (usually collecting qualitative data). Researchers build up a case history of the individual. Case studies are highly idiographic and data is collected using both retrospective and longitudinal techniques.
181
What does idiographic mean?
Relating to individual cases or events
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What is a retrospective study?
A type of study which collects data about something which has happened in the past
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What is a longitudinal study?
A type of study where research is conducted over a long period of time
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What are the advantages of case studies?
- Can offer rich, detailed insights that may shed light on unusual forms of behaviour
- Contribute to our understanding of 'normal' functioning
- Used to confirm or contradict current theories which can advance our knowledge
- Have high face validity
- Naturalistic so high ecological validity
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What are the disadvantages of case studies?
- Idiographic approach makes generalisation difficult as they lack population validity
- Retrospective methods means that information can be inaccurate (could be recalling from long ago).This limits the validity of the data
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What is a pilot study?
A small-scale version or trial of the full research on a small sample of participants. The aim is to identify and correct any problems or issues with the method so that it does not hinder the main investigation. This helps to save time and money in the long run. It can also help to improve validity and reliability of the method
Psychology
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