AQA Psychology A-Level > Research Methods - Sampling and Experiment Designs > Flashcards

Research Methods - Sampling and Experiment Designs Flashcards

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1
Q

Define target population

A

A specific group of people from the whole population you want to study

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2
Q

Define sample

A

The smaller group you actually select from the target population to participate in the study

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3
Q

What sampling methods are there?

A
  • Volunteer
  • Systematic
  • Opportunity
  • Stratified
  • Random
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4
Q

Define volunteer sampling

A

Participants put themselves forward to be included. They self-select to take part and are not directly asked.

e.g. placing an advert asking for participants where the target population is likely to see

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5
Q

Define systematic sampling

A

A sampling frame is produced of potential participants (a list from the target population) and organised.
A sampling pattern is then chosen, e.g. every nth person until the desired sample size is achieved

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6
Q

Define opportunity sampling

A

The researcher directly asks people who are readily available to them to participate.
AKA convenience sampling

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7
Q

Define stratified sampling

A

The composition of the sample reflects the proportions of subgroups (strata) in the target population. Strata are identified then the percentage proportion of each strata is calculated.
Random sampling of each strata is carried out until the correct proportions are matched in the smaller sample group.

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8
Q

Define random sampling

A

The researcher obtains a sampling frame. Participants are then chosen by chance to take part until the required number for the sample is achieved.

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9
Q

AO3 Evaluation:
Which sampling methods might be MORE prone to BIAS and why?

A
  • Opportunity
    -> researchers may only select the participants they want to ask to take part in the study e.g. those who may display preferred characteristics
    -> biased results
  • Volunteer
    -> only participants with certain characteristics are likely to take part (e.g. friendlier, outgoing people with more free time)
    -> lack of participants with other characteristics
    -> results will not be representative of the target population
    -> results not generalisable
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10
Q

AO3 Evaluation:
Which sampling methods might be LESS prone to BIAS and why?

A
  • Systematic
    -> researchers do not get to choose the participants as it is determined by the sampling pattern
  • Stratified
    -> participants are selected randomly from each strata of the target population to reflect the proportions of strata in the actual target population
  • Random
    -> participants are selected by chance, not by researchers themselves
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11
Q

Define bias

A

When the validity of the research findings may be affected by researchers influencing data collection, analysis, or interpretation

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12
Q

Why would bias be an issue?

A

It reduces the validity of the study

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13
Q

Which sampling methods might be MORE generalisable and why?

A
  • Stratified
    -> the proportions of participants from each subgroup in the sample reflects that of the target population
    -> better representation of target population
    -> can apply findings to them
  • Random
    -> a mix of participants can be obtained
    -> better representation of target population
    -> can apply findings to them
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14
Q

Which sampling methods might be LESS generalisable and why?

A
  • Volunteer
    -> participants with similar characteristics are likely more abundant because they self-select
    -> lack of other characteristics
    -> less representative, less generalisable findings
  • Opportunity
    -> participants with similar characteristics more likely to agree or be found in one place
    -> lack of other characteristics
    -> less representative, less generalisable findings
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15
Q

PEE for random sampling advantage?

A

P
Sample likely to be representative
E
Researcher has no control over who is selected so less chances of biased sample
E
Potentially controls participant variables better compared to other techniques
Increased validity

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16
Q

PEE for random sampling disadvantage?

A

P
Doesn’t guarantee representative sample
E
Method of choosing pps is random and due to chance
Some participant variables may be overrepresented or not at all
E
Sample may be unrepresentative
Generalisation more difficult

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17
Q

PEE for random sampling disadvantage 2?

A

P
Can be difficult and time consuming
E
The researcher needs a list of all the potential participants from the target population
E
May not be time efficient if a large sample is used

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18
Q

PEE for opportunity sampling advantage?

A

P
Participant sample easy to obtain and more cost effective
E
Researcher uses readily available participants by asking them to participate
E
No need to identify sampling frame before researcher
Easier and quicker to conduct

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19
Q

PEE for opportunity sampling disadvantage?

A

P
Sample is likely to be unrepresentative
E
Researcher uses readily available participants that are willing to participate
They might only be doing so because they are friendlier or have more free time
E
Pps likely to share similar characteristics and backgrounds
Population validity reduced
Harder to generalise findings

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20
Q

PEE for opportunity sampling disadvantage 2?

A

P
Potential for investigator bias
E
Researcher selects participants who are consenting and readily available to take part
Might (un)consciously pick pps that fit their expectations
E
Validity of findings reduced
Outcomes influenced by researcher bias and not naturally occurring behaviour of a varied sample of participants

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21
Q

PEE for opportunity sampling disadvantage 3?

A

P
Potential ethical issues associated with this sampling technique
E
Researcher uses readily available participants by directly asking them
E
Pps might feel pressured to take part (depending on who researcher is)
Creates problems regarding consent and right to withdraw

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22
Q

PEE for volunteer sampling advantage?

A

P
May be the only way to locate a particularly niche group of people
E
Researcher can advertise for this specific group of people who might be difficult to identify otherwise
E
Otherwise impossible studies can now be studied

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23
Q

PEE for volunteer sampling disadvantage?

A

P
Sample may lack generalisability
E
Researcher advertises for participants to take part
Such pps are likely cooperative and motivated, so they share similar characteristics
E
Fails to reflect wide variety of members from target population
Limits participant variables

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24
Q

PEE for volunteer sampling disadvantage 2?

A

P
Sample may not be representative
E
Researcher uses self selected participants
Relies on people seeing the advertisement to put themselves forward
E
Reduces size and variability of sample (people with similar backgrounds more likely to be found in similar places)
Limits participant variables

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25
PEE for systematic sampling advantage?
**P** Avoids random bias **E** Once sampling pattern is established, researcher has no influence over who is chosen **E** Increases validity More representative sample More generalisable findings
26
PEE for systematic sampling disadvantage?
**P** Doesn't guarantee a representative sample **E** Even though pps are chosen by chance, some groups can still be overrepresented or not selected because of their position in the list **E** Less representative
27
PEE for stratified sampling advantage?
**P** Avoids random bias **E** Once subdivided into strata, all groups from target population can be represented Researcher has no influence over who is chosen in each strata **E** Accurate reflection of target population Increased generalisability
28
PEE for stratified sampling disadvantage?
**P** More time consuming **E** It divides target population into strata Randomly selects participants from each one according to proportions of strata in target population **E** Takes time and requires researcher knowing all pos and details of target population
29
PEE for stratified sampling disadvantage 2?
**P** Not completely representative **E** Might not be able to identify every strata so some subgroups might not be represented **E** Complete representation of target population is not always possible
30
Things to remember when evaluating sampling methods?
1. Is it biased? 2. So is it representative? 3. So is it generalisable? 4. So is it valid? 5. Is it time consuming? BRGV Big Red Gorilla Vomits Toys
31
Define hypothesis
A theory the experiment will attempt to prove
32
Define independent variable
The variable that will be changed theoughout the experiment
33
Define dependent variable
The variable that will be measured or recorded during the experiment. It changes depending on the IV
34
Define extraneous variables
Any irrelevant factors that may affect the dependent variable
35
Define participant sample
A group of individuals from the target population
36
Define quantitative
Measurable numerical data
37
Define random allocation
Allocating participants to different groups/conditions **by chance**
38
What is a true experiment?
A study of **difference**. Looking to see if the results of 2 or more participant groups **vary** when the IV is changed
39
What do experiments aim to be?
**Highly controlled**, involving the **deliberate manipulation** of **one variable** by the researcher while trying to keep **all the other variables constant**
40
What types of experiment are there?
- Laboratory - Natural - Quasi - Field
41
What is a laboratory experiment?
- Conducted in **controlled environment** set up by researcher (**artificial** setting) - Researcher **directly manipulates IV** - Uses **standardised procedures** - Pps can be **randomly allocated** to conditions of the IV
42
What is natural experiment?
- Researcher has **no control over IV** (naturally occurring) - **DV is naturally occurring** - Random allocation of pps **not possible** - Researcher has **little control** over EVs
43
What is quasi experiment?
- Researcher has **no control over IV**, it is a **characteristic** of the individual and **naturally occurring** - Random allocation **not possible** - Researcher can put up a **task to measure DV** - Can **control some EVs**
44
What is field experiment?
- Study takes place in a **real-world setting** - Researcher **directly manipulates the IV** - **Random allocation is possible**
45
What is internal validity?
Whether results are **solely affected by changes in the IV** in a **cause-and-effect** relationship
46
What is ecological validity?
Whether data is **generalisable to the real world**, based on the **conditions and procedures used** in the research
47
What is population validity?
Whether data can be **generalised to other situations** outside of research environment
48
What is temporal validity?
Whether findings are still **relevant and apply across time**
49
What is reliability?
How consistent the results are likely to be
50
How to determine reliability?
If the study used **standardised procedures** which allows for **easier replication** of research So you can see if results are **consistent and reliable**
51
What is an advantage of a laboratory experiment?
**P** High in _reliability_ **E** - Uses **standardised procedures** - **Highly controlled** environment - **Extraneous variables** minimised **E** Findings easy to replicate to test for consistency
52
What is an advantage of a laboratory experiment 2?
**P** High in _internal validity_ **E** - **Strict control** over extraneous variables - **Isolates effect of IV on DV** - Can establish **cause and effect** relationships **E** Can be **confident** a change in the DV is caused by the IV
53
What is a disadvantage of a laboratory experiment?
**P** Low in _ecological validity_ **E** - Highly controlled setting so is **unfamiliar** to participants **E** Participants **behaviour influenced** by the environment or researchers' presence **Unlikely to be representative** of natural behaviour
54
What is a disadvantage of a laboratory experiment 2?
**P** Low in _internal validity_ **E** - Participants look for **clues** on how they should behave in artificial setting - **Demand characteristics** likely to occur **E** **Behaviour may change accordingly**, so it is **inaccurate**
55
What is an advantage of a field experiment?
**P** High in _ecological validity_ **E** - Takes place in a **natural environment** **E** Participants **behaviour will less likely be influenced by environment** More **accurate**
56
What is an advantage of a field experiment 2?
**P** High in _internal validity_ **E** - In a **natural / familiar** setting - **Demand characteristics are less likely** **E** We can be **confident** that a change in the DV is due to a change in the IV -> cause and effect relationship
57
What is a disadvantage of a field experiment?
**P** Low in _reliability_ **E** - Uses **standardised procedures** - But in a **natural environment** **E** Study **can't be easily replicated**
58
What is a disadvantage of a field experiment 2?
**P** Low in _internal validity_ **E** - **Little to no control** over extraneous variables **E** Can be difficult to establish cause and effect relationships
59
What is a disadvantage of a field experiment 3?
**P** _Ethical issues_ **E** - Participants may be **unaware** they are being observed / studied **E** The study does **not** have their **informed consent**
60
Advantages and disadvantages of a laboratory experiment?
_Advantages_ - High in reliability - High in internal validity _Disadvantages_ - Low in ecological validity - Low in internal validity
61
Advantages and disadvantages of a field experiment?
_Advantages_ - High in internal validity - High in ecological validity _Disadvantages_ - Low in internal validity - Ethical issues - Low in reliability
62
What is an advantage of a quasi experiment in a lab?
**P** High in _internal validity_ **E** - Takes place in a **highly controlled** environment - **Minimises extraneous variables** **E** **Easy to establish cause and effect** relationships betwen IV and DV
63
What is a disadvantage of a quasi experiment?
**P** Low in **internal validity** **E** - **IV** is naturally occurring characteristic, **cannot be manipulated** - **Random allocation** of participants **not possible** **E** **Participant variables** may **confound results** **Reduces ability** to say they are a **direct result** of the IV
64
What is an advantage of a quasi experiment in a field setting?
**P** High _ecological validity_ **E** - Tasks reflect real life experiences - Has mundane realism **E** Participants behaviour reflect their natural behaviour more accurately
65
What is an advantage of a quasi experiment in a field setting 2?
**P** Reduces +investigator effects_ **E** - In a natural setting - Participants less likely to look to researcher for clues - Demand characteristics less likely **E** Participants behaviour reflect their natural behaviour more accurately Increased validity
66
What are the advantages of a natural experiment?
- Researchers can investigate topics that would be **impractical** or **unethical to investigate** using other experimental methods - **Ecological validity extremely high**, researcher can study **real** problems and phenomenon - **Demand characeristics greatly reduced**; people unaware they are taking part so **act more naturally**
67
What are the disadvantages of a natural experiment?
- No random allocation of participants so participant variables more likely to confound results - No control over environment; extraneous variables greatly reduce internal validity of results but cannot eliminate them entirely - Breaches ethical guidelines of informed consent, confidentiality, and right to withdraw if pps unaware they are taking part - Natural events may be rare so research is often impossible to replicate and test for reliability
68
What are the advantages and disadvantages of a quasi experiment?
_Advantages_ - High in ecological validity - High in internal validity - Reduces investigator bias _Disadvantages_ - Low in internal validity
69
What are the advantages and disadvantages of a natural experiment?
_Advantages_ - Very high ecological validity - Can research impractical or unethical topics _Disadvantages_ - No random allocation - No control over extraneous variables - Ethical breaches - Natural events may be rare so research impossible to replicate
70
What is operationalising variables?
Expressing variables in a form that can be measured accurately
71
What types of extraneous variables are there?
- Participant variables - Situational variables - Experimenter effects - Demand characteristics
72
Define participant variables
Any **characteristic or aspect** of a participant's background that could **affect study results** in some way
73
Define situational variables
**Environmental** variables that may **alter participant behaviours** in study environments; from random errors or random variation in measurements
74
Define experimenter effects
**Unintentional actions by reseearchers** that may **influence study outcomes** (e.g. through interactions / errors)
75
Define demand characteristics
**Cues** that encourage the participant to **conform** to researchers' behavioural expectations when they **infer the aim of the study** from the materials to research settings
76
What are the advantages of random sampling?
- More representative - No investigator bias
77
What are the disadvantages of random sampling?
- May still have sample bias - Difficult and time consuming esp for large population
78
What is the advantage of systematic sampling?
- Avoids random bias
79
What is the disadvantage of systematic sampling?
- Does not guarantee representative sample
80
What is the advantage of stratified sampling?
- Avoids random bias
81
What are the disadvantages of stratified sampling?
- Not completely representative - Time-consuming
82
What is the advantage of volunteer sampling?
- May be the only way to locate a particularly niche group of people
83
What are the disadvantages of volunteer sampling?
- Lack generalisability - Not representative
84
What is the advantage of opportunity sampling?
- Quick and convenient
85
What are the disadvantages of opportunity sampling?
- Prone to investigator bias - Sample bias
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