Generella principer för retrieval
- In general, retrieval is a progression from one or more cues to a target memory, with the aim of making that memory available for ongoing cognition
- Traces in memory are believed to be linked to one another through connections usually called associations or links
- Any aspect of the content of a memory can serve as a reminder that could access the experience
Faktorer som påverkar återhämtning
*uppmärksamhet på cues
*relevansen hos cues (cues vid inkodning är avgörande) Encoding specificity principle: ska ske överlapp mellan inkodningskontexten och återhämtningskontexten så mkt som möjligt
*Mål-cue-associationsstyrka
*Antal cues
*Målets inkodningsstyrka
*Återhämtningsstrategi
*Återhämtningsläge - önskan att återhämta (vilket är varför inte allt omkring oss hela tiden triggar minnen)
How do we progress from cues to target memory via associations?
- one useful and simple idea is that retrieval occurs by spreading activation process
- according to this idea, each memory has an internal state of its own, reflecting how “excited” or “active” it is, a state referred to as the memories activation level
- The activation level varies, and determines how accessible a trace is in memory
- A trace’s activation level increases when something related to it is perceived, or when attention is focused directly on the trace. This activation persists for some time, even after attention has been removed
Memory is complex: in most instances, it’s better to regard a memory as a collection of features that, if activated collectively by cues, would constitute retrieval;
- Retrieval involves the reinstatement, via spreading activation, of a pattern of activation over features that represent a memory.
- several features of the original experience, provided as cues, will spread activation to other features, completing the missing components of the memory pattern.
Vad är mood-congruent respektive mood-dependent memory(o vad e skillnaden)
- Mood-congruent memory: Bias in the recall of memories such that negative mood makes
negative memories more readily available than positive, and vice versa. Unlike mood
dependency, it does not affect the recall of neutral memories. - Mood-dependent memory: A form of context dependent effect whereby what is learnt in a
given mood, whether positive, negative or neutral, is best recalled in that mood
Vad har studier från personer med skador eller dysfunktion i prefrontala kortex lärt om retrieval processen(och om recall vs recognition)?
Retrieval relies strongly on control processes supported by the prefrontal cortex
* Disruption in ability to recall often accompany damage or dysfunction in prefrontal cortex
* Hinders recall for even very well-learned information from across lifespan
- in a study where participants were shown a face of a famous person and were asked to name the person, people with this kind of damage did worse than the control group in free recall and cued recall, but not in recognition(when given names and asked to pick the correct one).
Vilka processer krävs i Intentional retrieval(som ej krävs i incidental retrieval)
Since we are targeting a particular trace in memory, cognitive control processes are thought necessary to focus the search process
* processes include cue-specification, cue-maintenance in working memory, interference resolution processes and post retrieval monitoring
Involuntary retrieval
när man ej är i retrieval mode. Events or ideas seem to “spring to mind” unbidden, with little effort or intention. Relaterat t mind wondering. involuntary retrieval of unpleasant memories constitute a major symptom of numerous psychiatric disorders(PTSD, depression, ångest)
Context cues
Retrieval cues that specify aspects of the conditions under which a desired target was encoded, including (for example) the location and time of the event
- spatio-temporal/environmental context(var o när)
- mood context(emotional state)
- physiological context(pharmacological/physical state)
- cognitive context(particular collection of concepts and ideas that one has thought about in the temporal vicinity of the event)
Retrieval orientation
the mental preparation(retrieval mode) also involves getting the brain ready to search for a particular type of content. Specification of the category of content (ex att komma ihåg var något är vs hur något luktar) one is looking for is known as retrieval orientation
Direct/explicit memory tests
- free recall. relies on context most heavily. No overt cues are given. “Recall studied items in any order”
- cued recall provides additional cues. Requires context as a vue but context is supplemented with specific information that focuses search. “What word did you study together with leap?”very often focuses on particular items in memory. Intended to mimic situations when we are recalling a particular item or experience in response to a cue. Is often easier than free recall, and doesn’t rely as heavily on retrieval strategies.
- recognition tests simply require a decision: “did you encounter this stimulus on this occasion?”
Usually the easiest. Forced-choice recognition: “which did you study: ballet or monk?”, yes/no-recognition: “Did you study ballet?” - Serial recall känns d som dom borde ha med på denna listan men det har dom inte idk vrf
Va e repetition priming/hur kan detta visas med the indirect memory tests
In each of these tests, people are better at doing the task for previously viewed words, compared to new words even when they are unaware of the connection to the prior phase: faster lexical decisions, identify difficult-to-see words more accurately, or generate word fragment completions more frequently. Despite absence of contextual cuing, recent experience with the stimulus improves performance
What is context-dependent memory and what are the (4) types?
The finding that memory benefits when the spatio-temporal, mood, physiological, or cognitive context at retrieval matches that present at encoding. TYPES:
* Environmental/spatio-temporal context-dependent memory: lättare att retrieve om man e i samma external environment som inkodning
(kan även va enklare ba av att föreställa sig att man är i the environment)
- State-dependent memory
Internal environment - ex. Drugs, alcohol (studies show that what learned drunk is best recalled when drunk - samma m massa andra droger) men även naturliga fysiologiska förändringar(ex vila vs träning) - Mood-dependent memory
Mood-dependent memory: A form of context dependent effect whereby what is learnt in a given mood, whether positive, negative or neutral, is best recalled in that mood - Cognitive context-dependent memory
Internal context also includes the ideas, thoughts and concepts that have occupied our attention around the time of encoding, and retrieval. Ex: language context(studie: russian-english bilinguals were asked to tell stories about their lives in response to word prompts. When interview was conducted in russian, participants generally generated memories from a russian-speaking context, and opposite when conducted in english
Signal detection theory
How well a person can discriminate studied from new items depends on the difference in the average familiarity between their old and new distributions.
* Theory proposes that people choose a criterion level of familiarity, above which they will judge an item as old.
(dvs teori om recognition?)
Dual-process accounts of recognition memory
One can have a very high degree of familiarity for a stimulus, but still feel as through their recognition is incomplete
- du vet när man känner igen nån men vet inte var man kommer ihåg dom från
According to this theory, 2 independent retrieval processes can contribute to recognition:
1. Familiarity-based recognition(fast and automatic, yielding a perception of the memory’s strength without recall of particulars. Well characterized by signal detection theory)
2. Recollection(slow, more attention demanding. Much more like the cued recall)
2 Methods to isolate contributions of recollection and familiarity
- Remember/know procedure: A procedure used on recognition memory tests to separate
the influences of familiarity and recollection on recognition performance. For each test item,
participants report whether it is recognized because the person can recollect contextual
details of seeing the item (classified as a “remember” response) or because the item seems
familiar, in the absence of specific recollections (classified as “know” response). - Process dissociation procedure (PDP): A technique for parceling out the contributions of recollection and familiarity within a recognition task. Ex dom får en lista med visuellt presenterade ord och en med auditivt presenterade ord. I the recognition task ska en grupp säga “Ja” om dom känner igen ordet från nån av listorna(bör va en blandning av ord de känner igen baserat på familiarity och baserat på recall) och en annan grupp ska enbart säga ja om de känner igen ordet från den auditivt presenterade listan(om de säger ja till ett ord som är på visuella listan indikerar det familiarity utan recollection). Så om man subtraherar felen från grupp 2 från the overall recognition av grupp 1 kan man uppskatta hur mkt contribution recall gjort för recognition.
3 Generalizations that support the distinction between recollection and familiarity processes
- Recollection a stimulus is much more sensitive to disruption by distraction during experience
- Distraction during recognition process itself is also more disruptive to recollection than it is to sense of familiarity
- People with diminished attentional control(older people and patients w prefrontal cortex damage) show deficits in recollection but not familiarity.
Vilka områden är associerade med recollection respektive familiarity
Recollection- hippocampus, especially posterior hippocampus
Familiarity - perirhinal cortex
Post-retrieval monitoring:
During intentional retrieval, the processes by which one evaluates the products of memory search, to determine whether the retrieved trace is what we seek
Source monitoring:
- The process of examining the contextual origins of a memory in order to determine whether it was encoded from a particular source
- a post-retrieval monitoring process
Requires controlled processes mediated by prefrontal cortex
Source misattribution error
When deciding the source of information in memory, sometimes people make errors and misattribute their recollection from one source to another
Reality monitoring
Using source monitoring processes to decide whether a piece of
information in memory referred to a real event or instead to something imagined
- (according to Marcia Johnson et al) Relative prevalence of perceptual detail vs memory for cognitive operations would guide our decision about the memory’s “realness”
Activation level
The variable internal state of a memory trace that contributes to its accessibility at a given point.
Features
Elementary components from which a complex memory can be assembled, including perceptual aspects such as color and object shapes, as well as higher level conceptual elements.
Pattern completion
The process whereby presenting a subset of features that represent a memory spreads activation to the remaining feature units representing that memory, completing the pattern of activity necessary to retrieve it.
