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2
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What is meant by ‘omnipotent’?
A
All-powerful — God has unlimited power and can do anything. Nothing is impossible for God.
3
Q
What is meant by ‘omnibenevolent’?
A
All-loving — God loves all people perfectly and unconditionally. God’s nature is love.
4
Q
What is meant by ‘omniscient’?
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All-knowing — God has complete knowledge of everything: past, present and future.
5
Q
What is meant by ‘the Trinity’?
A
The Christian belief that God exists as three persons — Father, Son and Holy Spirit — yet remains one God.
6
Q
What is meant by ‘the incarnation’?
A
God becoming human in the person of Jesus Christ. The divine Word took on human flesh.
7
Q
What is meant by ‘atonement’?
A
The reconciliation of humanity with God through Jesus’s death on the cross — the broken relationship between God and humans is restored.
8
Q
What is meant by ‘resurrection’?
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Jesus rising physically from the dead on the third day after his crucifixion, demonstrating his divine nature and conquest of death.
9
Q
What is meant by ‘ascension’?
A
Jesus returning to heaven (the Father) 40 days after the resurrection, as recorded in Acts 1.
10
Q
What is meant by ‘ex nihilo’?
A
Latin for ‘from nothing’ — the Christian belief that God created the universe from nothing, with no pre-existing material.
11
Q
What is meant by ‘imago dei’?
A
Latin for ‘image of God’ — the belief that humans are made in God’s image and therefore have special dignity and worth.
12
Q
Give two Christian beliefs about the nature of God.
A
- God is omnipotent (all-powerful). 2. God is omnibenevolent (all-loving). Other valid answers: omniscient, just, eternal, creator, transcendent, immanent.
13
Q
Give two Christian beliefs about the Trinity.
A
- God exists as three persons: Father, Son and Holy Spirit. 2. Each person has a distinct role — the Father creates, the Son redeems, the Spirit guides.
14
Q
Give two Christian beliefs about creation.
A
- God created the world from nothing (ex nihilo). 2. Humans are made in God’s image (imago dei).
15
Q
Give two Christian beliefs about the crucifixion.
A
- Jesus’s death was an act of atonement — restoring the relationship between God and humanity. 2. The crucifixion demonstrated God’s love for the world.
16
Q
Give two Christian beliefs about life after death.
A
- Christians believe in the resurrection of the body on judgement day. 2. After judgement, souls go to heaven (eternal life with God) or hell (eternal separation from God).
17
Q
Explain two Christian beliefs about the Trinity.
A
Point 1: God exists as three persons — Father, Son and Holy Spirit (1 mark). These are not three separate gods but one God in three persons, as affirmed in the Nicene Creed (development). Point 2: Each person has a distinct role (1 mark). The Father creates, the Son redeems through the incarnation, and the Holy Spirit guides the Church (development).
18
Q
Explain two Christian beliefs about the incarnation.
A
Point 1: Jesus is fully God and fully human — God took on human flesh (1 mark). This means God fully experienced human life and suffering, which Christians find comforting (development). Point 2: The incarnation was necessary for salvation (1 mark). Only by becoming human could Jesus die for the sins of humanity and make atonement possible (development).
19
Q
Explain two Christian beliefs about the resurrection.
A
Point 1: The resurrection was a physical event — Jesus rose bodily from the dead, leaving an empty tomb (1 mark). This proved Jesus had conquered death and confirmed his divine nature (development). Point 2: The resurrection gives Christians hope (1 mark). The Bible teaches believers will also rise, giving hope of eternal life with God (development).
20
Q
Explain two Christian beliefs about the crucifixion.
A
Point 1: The crucifixion was an act of atonement (1 mark). Jesus’s death restored the broken relationship between God and humanity, making forgiveness of sin possible (development). Point 2: The crucifixion demonstrated God’s love (1 mark). Jesus willingly died as a sacrifice — showing the extent of God’s love for humanity (development).
21
Q
Explain two Christian beliefs about life after death. Refer to sacred writings or another source of Christian belief.
A
Point 1: Christians believe in the resurrection of the body (1 mark). The Bible teaches the dead will be raised and judged — those who believe will have eternal life with God in heaven (development + teaching). Point 2: Christians believe in heaven and hell (1 mark). After judgement, souls go to heaven (eternal joy with God) or hell (eternal separation from God) based on their faith and actions (development).
22
Q
Explain two Christian beliefs about the nature of God. Refer to sacred writings or another source of Christian belief.
A
Point 1: Christians believe God is omnipotent (1 mark). The Bible teaches nothing is impossible for God — he created the universe from nothing (development + teaching). Point 2: Christians believe God is just (1 mark). Christian teaching holds that God will judge all people fairly at the end of time, rewarding good and punishing evil (development).
23
Q
‘Christians believe the resurrection is the most important Christian belief.’ Evaluate this statement.
A
FOR: The resurrection proves Jesus is divine and conquered death (1 Cor 15:14 — ‘if Christ has not been raised, your faith is futile’). It gives Christians hope of eternal life. AGAINST: The incarnation is equally important — without God becoming human, there could be no resurrection. The atonement (crucifixion) provides the forgiveness of sins. CONCLUSION: Most Christians would say the resurrection is foundational — it is the basis of Christian hope — but it cannot be separated from the incarnation and crucifixion which it depends on.
24
Q
‘The oneness of God is more important than the Trinity for Christians.’ Evaluate this statement.
A
FOR: Christianity is monotheistic — the Bible emphasises one God, distinguishing it from polytheism. The Nicene Creed affirms belief in ‘one God’. AGAINST: The Trinity is equally central — without the three persons, the incarnation and the role of the Holy Spirit cannot be explained. The baptism formula (Matthew 28) invokes all three persons. CONCLUSION: Most Christians would say both are inseparable — the Trinity explains HOW God is one, so neither concept is more important.
25
What does 1 Corinthians 15:14 say and why is it important?
'If Christ has not been raised, your faith is futile.' — Paul argues the resurrection is the foundation of Christian faith. Without it, Christianity has no basis. Used to support the importance of the resurrection.
26
What does John 1:14 say and why is it important?
'The Word became flesh and made his dwelling among us.' — This is the key verse for the incarnation. It shows God fully entering human experience. Used to support beliefs about Jesus as God in human form.
27
What does Genesis 1:1 say and why is it important?
'In the beginning, God created the heavens and the earth.' — This establishes God as creator and the belief in ex nihilo creation. Used in discussions about creation and the origins of the universe.
28
What does Genesis 1:27 say and why is it important?
'God created mankind in his own image.' — This is the basis for imago dei — human dignity and special worth. Used in ethics (sanctity of life) and beliefs about human nature.
29
What is the Nicene Creed and why is it important?
A statement of Christian belief affirming the Trinity — Father, Son and Holy Spirit — as one God. It is used to show that belief in the Trinity is central and established in Christian tradition.
30
What happened at Pentecost and why is it significant?
After the ascension, the Holy Spirit descended on the disciples (Acts 2). This is significant because it marks the start of the Church and shows the continuing presence of God through the Spirit.
31
What is purgatory?
A Catholic belief that souls are purified of remaining sin before entering heaven. Not all Christians believe this — most Protestants reject it. Used when discussing Christian beliefs about life after death.
32
What is meant by 'Brahman'?
The ultimate reality in Hinduism — the one divine essence underlying all existence. Brahman is infinite, eternal and the source of everything.
33
What is meant by 'the Tri-murti'?
The three aspects of Brahman: Brahma (creator), Vishnu (preserver) and Shiva (destroyer). Together they represent the cycle of creation, preservation and destruction.
34
What is meant by 'avatar'?
A physical incarnation or descent of Vishnu to earth. Avatars appear to restore dharma when it is threatened by evil. Examples: Rama and Krishna.
35
What is meant by 'dharma'?
Duty, moral law and the right way of living. Dharma refers to a person's religious and moral obligations — living according to cosmic order.
36
What is meant by 'karma'?
The law of cause and effect — good actions lead to good consequences, bad actions lead to bad consequences. Karma affects future rebirths.
37
What is meant by 'the Atman'?
The eternal soul or self in Hinduism. The Atman does not die when the body dies — it is reborn in a new body based on karma.
38
What is meant by 'moksha'?
Liberation from the cycle of rebirth (samsara). Moksha is achieved when the Atman realises its unity with Brahman. It is the ultimate goal of Hindu life.
39
What is meant by 'samsara'?
The cycle of birth, death and rebirth that the Atman passes through until moksha is achieved.
40
What is meant by 'Shakti'?
The divine feminine energy in Hinduism. Shakti is the female aspect of the divine and is expressed through goddesses such as Durga, Kali and Lakshmi.
41
What is meant by 'ahimsa'?
Non-harm or non-violence — the principle that one should not harm any living creature. Central to Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism.
42
What is 'Tat tvam asi' and why is it important?
'That thou art' — a teaching from the Chandogya Upanishad meaning the individual soul (Atman) is identical to ultimate reality (Brahman). Used to support the Hindu belief that all souls are one with Brahman.
43
Give two features of the Tri-murti.
1. Brahma is the creator god. 2. Vishnu is the preserver/sustainer of the universe. (Also valid: Shiva is the destroyer; together they represent the cycle of creation, preservation and destruction.)
44
Give two Hindu beliefs about avatars.
1. Avatars are physical incarnations of Vishnu who descend to earth. 2. They appear to restore dharma when it is threatened by evil.
45
Give two Hindu beliefs about the Atman.
1. The Atman is the eternal soul that survives death. 2. The Atman is reborn in a new body based on karma (reincarnation).
46
Give two Hindu beliefs about the female divine.
1. Shakti is the divine feminine energy. 2. Lakshmi is the goddess of wealth and prosperity.
47
Explain two Hindu beliefs about avatars.
Point 1: Avatars are physical incarnations of Vishnu (1 mark). They descend to earth to restore dharma when it is threatened by evil forces (development). Point 2: Rama is a key avatar (1 mark). In the Ramayana, Rama models ideal human virtue and righteous behaviour, showing Hindus how to live (development).
48
Explain two Hindu beliefs about the Atman. Refer to sacred writings or another source of Hindu belief.
Point 1: The Atman is the eternal soul — it does not die when the body dies (1 mark). It is reborn in a new body based on karma accumulated in previous lives (development). Point 2: Hindu teaching states the Atman is ultimately identical to Brahman (1 mark). The Upanishads teach 'Tat tvam asi' — meaning the individual soul and ultimate reality are one, and moksha is achieved when this is realised (development + teaching).
49
Explain two Hindu beliefs about free will and suffering. Refer to sacred writings or another source of Hindu belief.
Point 1: Karma means actions have consequences (1 mark). Bad karma from past lives leads to suffering in this life — suffering is therefore not random but a result of past choices (development). Point 2: Hindus believe humans have free will (1 mark). The Bhagavad Gita teaches that we have the right to act but not to control the results — we are responsible for generating our own karma (development + teaching).
50
'Hindus believe all deities are really one God.' Evaluate this statement.
FOR: Brahman is the one ultimate reality — all deities are manifestations or aspects of Brahman. The Upanishads support this monistic view ('Ekam sat vipra bahudha vadanti' — truth is one, sages call it by many names). AGAINST: Many Hindus worship individual deities as distinct beings with their own personalities and powers. Dvaita Vedanta (Madhva) holds that deities and Brahman are genuinely distinct. CONCLUSION: Whether all deities are one depends on which tradition of Hinduism is followed — Advaita Vedanta says yes, Dvaita says no.
51
Who is Rama and why is he significant?
Rama is an avatar of Vishnu, featured in the Ramayana. He is considered the model of ideal human virtue — righteous, devoted and dutiful. Rama demonstrates how dharma should be lived.
52
Who is Krishna and why is he significant?
Krishna is an avatar of Vishnu, featured in the Bhagavad Gita. He teaches Arjuna about duty, devotion and the nature of the soul. His teachings form the basis of much Hindu philosophy.
53
What is the Bhagavad Gita?
A Hindu sacred text — part of the Mahabharata — in which Krishna instructs Arjuna on dharma, karma, free will and the nature of the Atman. A key source of Hindu teaching.
54
What is Advaita Vedanta?
A Hindu philosophical school (associated with Shankara) that teaches non-dualism — Atman and Brahman are ultimately one and the same. All apparent differences are maya (illusion).
55
What is 'sanatana dharma'?
The eternal moral law or eternal way — sometimes used as an alternative name for Hinduism itself. It refers to the timeless duties and virtues that all beings should follow.
56
What is meant by 'the sanctity of life'?
The belief that life is sacred and holy — it is a gift from God and has special value that must be protected. Used in ethical debates about abortion, euthanasia and capital punishment.
57
What is meant by 'stewardship'?
The responsibility to look after the earth on God's behalf. Humans are caretakers of creation, answerable to God for how they treat it.
58
What is meant by 'khalifah'?
The Islamic concept of humans as God's vicegerents or trustees of the earth. The Quran teaches that humans have a duty to care for the earth on Allah's behalf.
59
What is meant by 'dominion'?
The authority given to humans over the natural world (Genesis 1:28). This can be interpreted as permission to use animals and the environment, or as a responsibility to care for them.
60
What is meant by 'euthanasia'?
Deliberately ending a life to relieve suffering. Voluntary euthanasia is at the person's request. Currently illegal in the UK. Also called 'mercy killing'.
61
What is meant by 'abortion'?
The deliberate termination of a pregnancy. Legal in the UK up to 24 weeks. Raises religious and ethical questions about when life begins and the sanctity of life.
62
What is meant by 'situation ethics'?
An ethical theory developed by Joseph Fletcher — decisions should be made based on agape (unconditional love) rather than fixed rules. The most loving outcome determines what is right.
63
What is meant by 'quality of life'?
The idea that the value of life is related to how worthwhile or pleasant it is. Used in debates about euthanasia and abortion to argue that life without dignity or wellbeing may not need to be preserved.
64
Give two religious beliefs about abortion.
1. Many believers oppose abortion because life is sacred from conception — ending it is wrong. 2. Some Christians accept abortion in extreme cases (e.g. rape) if it is the most loving outcome (situation ethics).
65
Give two religious beliefs about euthanasia.
1. Many oppose euthanasia because life belongs to God — only God can take life (sanctity of life). 2. The Bible teaches 'do not murder' — the sixth commandment applies to euthanasia.
66
Give two religious beliefs about the use of animals.
1. The Bible gives humans dominion over animals (Genesis 1:28). 2. Ahimsa (non-harm) teaches that animals must not be harmed — used by Hindus and Buddhists.
67
Give two religious reasons to protect the environment.
1. Stewardship — the Bible teaches God gave humans responsibility to care for creation. 2. Khalifah — the Quran teaches humans are God's trustees of the earth.
68
Explain two religious beliefs about abortion.
Point 1: Many believers hold that life begins at conception, making abortion wrong (1 mark). The Bible teaches that God knew us before we were born, so ending a pregnancy ends a sacred life (development + teaching). Point 2: Some Christians use situation ethics (1 mark). If abortion is the most loving outcome — for example in cases of rape or severe foetal abnormality — it may be justified (development).
69
Explain two religious beliefs about euthanasia. Refer to sacred writings or another source of religious belief.
Point 1: Many religious believers oppose euthanasia because life belongs to God (1 mark). The Bible teaches 'do not murder' — the sixth commandment means only God has the right to end life (development + teaching). Point 2: Others argue compassion must guide the decision (1 mark). Allowing someone to die in agony is not dignified — the hospice movement, founded by the Christian Cicely Saunders, shows pain can be managed without euthanasia (development).
70
Explain two religious beliefs about life after death. Refer to sacred writings or another source of religious belief.
Point 1: Christians believe in the resurrection of the body (1 mark). The Bible teaches the dead will be raised and judged — those who believe will have eternal life with God (development + teaching). Point 2: Hindus believe in reincarnation (1 mark). The Atman is reborn in a new body based on the karma accumulated in previous lives — this continues until moksha is achieved (development).
71
Explain two religious beliefs about pollution. Refer to sacred writings or another source of religious belief.
Point 1: Christians believe stewardship means they must protect creation from pollution (1 mark). The Bible teaches God gave humans responsibility for the earth — causing pollution is a failure of that duty (development + teaching). Point 2: Islamic teaching holds that khalifah (trusteeship) means Muslims must protect the environment (1 mark). The Quran teaches humans are answerable to Allah for how they treat the earth, making pollution a religious as well as environmental issue (development + teaching).
72
'Euthanasia can never be the right choice.' Evaluate this statement.
FOR: The sanctity of life — the Bible teaches only God can take life. The sixth commandment ('do not murder') applies to euthanasia. A slippery slope — legalising euthanasia could lead to pressure on the vulnerable. AGAINST: Quality of life — dying in pain without dignity is not compassionate. Situation ethics — the most loving action may be to end suffering. The hospice movement is not always sufficient. CONCLUSION: Whether euthanasia can be right depends on whether sanctity of life or quality of life takes priority — most religious traditions prioritise sanctity, but compassion also matters.
73
'The origins of the universe can be explained by science alone.' Evaluate this statement.
FOR: The Big Bang theory provides a scientific account of how the universe began. Evolution explains how life developed without needing God. Science is based on evidence, not faith. AGAINST: The Bible teaches God created the world. Science explains HOW but not WHY — religion answers questions of meaning and purpose. Polkinghorne argued science and faith are compatible. CONCLUSION: Science alone cannot explain meaning, purpose or moral values — religion remains relevant. Most religious believers accept science but see it as incomplete without God.
74
What does Genesis 2:15 say and why is it important?
'The Lord God took the man and put him in the Garden of Eden to work it and take care of it.' — This is the basis for stewardship. God gave humans responsibility to care for creation. Used in environmental ethics.
75
What does Genesis 1:28 say and why is it important?
'God blessed them and said to them: be fruitful and increase in number; fill the earth and subdue it. Rule over the fish in the sea and birds in the sky.' — The basis for the concept of dominion. Can be interpreted as permission to use or responsibility to care for creation.
76
What is the hospice movement and why is it relevant?
Founded by the Christian Cicely Saunders — it provides palliative care (pain management) for the dying without hastening death. Used as a Christian alternative to euthanasia, showing suffering can be relieved without killing.
77
What does 'Exodus 20' (sixth commandment) say and why is it important?
'You shall not murder.' — The sixth commandment. Used to oppose euthanasia and abortion on the grounds that taking life is forbidden by God.
78
What is the design argument (teleological argument)?
The argument that the complexity and order of the universe implies it was designed — and the designer is God. Associated with William Paley (watchmaker analogy) and Aquinas (Fifth Way).
79
What is the first cause argument (cosmological argument)?
The argument that everything has a cause, and there must be a first uncaused cause — which is God. Associated with Thomas Aquinas. Infinite regress (causes going back forever) is held to be impossible.
80
What is the argument from miracles?
The argument that miracles — events that break the laws of nature — can only be explained by divine intervention, and therefore prove God's existence.
81
What is meant by 'general revelation'?
God revealing himself through the natural world — available to all people regardless of religion or scripture. Examples: the beauty of nature, the order of the universe.
82
What is meant by 'special revelation'?
God revealing himself to specific individuals — through visions, dreams, scripture, miracles or the incarnation. Not available to everyone.
83
What is the problem of evil?
The argument that the existence of evil and suffering is incompatible with the existence of an all-powerful, all-loving God. If God were omnipotent and omnibenevolent, evil should not exist.
84
What is the logical problem of evil?
The argument (associated with Mackie and Epicurus) that it is logically impossible for an omnipotent, omnibenevolent God to allow evil. The 'inconsistent triad': God is all-powerful + God is all-loving + evil exists — all three cannot be true.
85
What is the free will defence?
The response to the problem of evil that God gave humans free will — moral evil is the result of human choices, not God's intention. God allows evil because he values freedom.
86
What is Irenaeus's soul-making theodicy?
The argument that God allows suffering because it helps humans grow spiritually and morally. The world is a 'vale of soul-making' — a place where character is developed through adversity.
87
Give two features of the first cause argument.
1. Everything has a cause — nothing happens without a prior cause. 2. There must be a first uncaused cause — infinite regress is impossible — and that first cause is God.
88
Give two examples of special revelation.
1. Visions — e.g. Isaiah's vision of God in the Temple. 2. Scripture — the Bible or Quran as direct revelation from God. (Also valid: dreams, miracles, incarnation, burning bush.)
89
Explain two reasons why evil and suffering lead people to doubt God's existence.
Point 1: The logical problem — if God is all-powerful and all-loving, evil should not exist (1 mark). Yet the world is full of suffering, making it appear that God is either unwilling or unable to stop it — contradicting his nature (development). Point 2: The emotional problem — personal suffering makes faith psychologically difficult (1 mark). The Holocaust, for example, led many to question whether a loving God could allow such atrocity (development).
90
Explain two religious responses to the problem of evil. Refer to sacred writings or another source of religious belief.
Point 1: The free will defence argues God gave humans free will (1 mark). Moral evil results from human choices — the Bible teaches the Fall (Adam and Eve's disobedience) explains how evil entered the world (development + teaching). Point 2: Irenaeus's soul-making theodicy argues suffering serves a purpose (1 mark). God designed the world as a place where humans grow through adversity — suffering builds moral and spiritual character (development).
91
Explain two reasons why miracles lead some people to believe in God.
Point 1: Miracles suggest God actively intervenes in the world (1 mark). The Bible records Jesus healing the sick and raising Lazarus from the dead — these events demonstrate divine power at work (development). Point 2: Personal experiences of miracles feel undeniable (1 mark). Testimony from those who experienced something that defied natural explanation can be powerful evidence that God exists and acts in the world (development).
92
'The design argument proves that God exists.' Evaluate this statement.
FOR: Paley's watchmaker argument — the complexity of the universe implies a designer (God). Aquinas's Fifth Way — everything acts towards an end, suggesting a directing intelligence. AGAINST: Hume — the universe could be the result of chance or many designers; an imperfect universe suggests an imperfect designer. Darwin — evolution explains complexity without needing God. CONCLUSION: The design argument does not prove God exists — it is a probability argument, not a logical proof. But for many believers it provides compelling evidence.
93
'Science has made belief in God impossible.' Evaluate this statement.
FOR: The Big Bang and evolution explain origins without God. Dawkins argues science has made religion redundant. Science is based on evidence; religion on faith. AGAINST: Polkinghorne (physicist and priest) argued science and faith are compatible. Science explains HOW; religion explains WHY — they address different questions (Gould's NOMA). Many scientists are believers. CONCLUSION: Science has made literal readings of Genesis harder to defend, but has not eliminated faith — belief in God addresses questions science cannot answer.
94
What is Paley's watchmaker argument?
If you found a watch, you would conclude it had a designer because of its complexity. Similarly, the complexity of the universe implies it was designed by God. Associated with William Paley (1802).
95
What is Aquinas's Fifth Way?
Everything acts towards an end/purpose — this implies a directing intelligence (God). Part of Aquinas's Five Ways for proving God's existence. A version of the design argument.
96
What is Hume's critique of the design argument?
1. The universe could be the result of chance, not design. 2. If there is a designer, it might be many designers, not one God. 3. An imperfect universe implies an imperfect designer. 4. Evolution (later added by Darwin) offers an alternative explanation.
97
What is NOMA (Gould)?
Non-Overlapping Magisteria — Stephen Jay Gould's argument that science and religion address different questions. Science explains facts about the natural world; religion addresses meaning, morality and purpose. They do not conflict because they operate in different domains.
98
What is Polkinghorne's argument about science and religion?
John Polkinghorne (physicist and Anglican priest) argued science and Christian faith are compatible. Science explains the mechanism; God explains the meaning. The fine-tuning of the universe for life suggests a creator.
99
What is the inconsistent triad?
A philosophical argument (J.L. Mackie): God is omnipotent + God is omnibenevolent + evil exists. All three cannot be simultaneously true — so a traditional God probably does not exist.
100
What is natural evil?
Evil caused by natural events rather than human choices — e.g. earthquakes, floods, disease. This is harder for the free will defence to explain, as it is not caused by human actions.
101
What is moral evil?
Evil caused by human choices and actions — e.g. murder, war, theft. The free will defence argues this type of evil is a result of God giving humans freedom.
102
What is John Hick's contribution to the problem of evil?
Hick developed Irenaeus's soul-making theodicy — the world is a 'vale of soul-making' where humans develop virtues through suffering. God maintains 'epistemic distance' so that faith is genuine, not forced.
103
Who is William James and what did he argue?
An American psychologist and philosopher who studied religious experiences. He argued they share four qualities including being 'noetic' (conveying knowledge). Used in the argument from miracles/religious experience.
104
What is the argument from religious experience?
The argument that personal religious experiences (visions, conversions, feelings of the divine) provide evidence for God's existence — they are too widespread and similar to be dismissed as illusion.
105
What does 'Psalm 139:13' say and why is it important?
'You knit me together in my mother's womb.' — God knows individuals before birth. Used to support the sanctity of life argument against abortion — God values life from conception.
106
What is situation ethics?
An ethical theory by Joseph Fletcher — the right action is the most loving one (agape love). Rules are not absolute; love is the only guide. Can be used to justify abortion or euthanasia in extreme cases.
107
What is the slippery slope argument against euthanasia?
If euthanasia is legalised, there is a risk it will gradually extend to cases where patients have not genuinely consented — vulnerable people could feel pressured to die. Used by religious groups to oppose legalisation.
108
What is the Big Bang theory?
The scientific theory that the universe began approximately 13.8 billion years ago from an extremely hot, dense state and has been expanding ever since. Used in debates about science vs religion on the origins of the universe.
109
What is Darwin's theory of evolution?
The theory that all species developed from common ancestors through natural selection — random genetic mutations that aid survival are passed on. Explains the complexity of life without a creator.
110
What is theistic evolution?
The view that God used the process of evolution to create life. It accepts scientific evidence for evolution while maintaining that God was the ultimate cause. A way of reconciling science and religion.
111
What is 'ex nihilo' creation and why does it matter?
Creation from nothing — God brought the universe into existence without any pre-existing material. This distinguishes the Christian God as the absolute source of all reality, not just a craftsman who shaped existing matter.
112
How do Christians view the relationship between science and religion?
Views range from conflict (some fundamentalists take Genesis literally, rejecting evolution) to compatibility (theistic evolution, Polkinghorne) to complementarity (science and religion answer different questions — NOMA).
113
What are the four qualities of religious experience (William James)?
1. Ineffable (cannot be put into words). 2. Noetic (conveys knowledge). 3. Transient (temporary). 4. Passive (the person feels acted upon by an external force).
114
What is the ontological argument?
The argument by Anselm that God is 'that than which nothing greater can be conceived' — a God who exists in reality is greater than one who exists only in the mind, so God must exist. (Note: AQA RS does not always require this — check your spec.)
115
What is agape?
Unconditional, selfless love — the highest form of love in Christian ethics. Used in situation ethics as the only criterion for moral decisions.
116
What does the Quran teach about the environment?
Muslims believe humans are khalifah (vicegerents/trustees) of the earth — answerable to Allah for how they treat it. Pollution and environmental destruction are therefore religious failures.
117
What is the Hindu view on abortion?
Hinduism generally opposes abortion as it harms the Atman (eternal soul), which enters the body at or before conception. However, views vary — some accept it to protect the mother's life.
118
What is the Islamic view on abortion?
Generally forbidden, but many scholars permit it before 120 days (when the soul/ruh is believed to enter the body), especially if the mother's life is at risk. After 120 days, it is considered more serious.
119
What is the Christian view on euthanasia?
Most Christians oppose euthanasia — life is God's gift, only God can take it (sanctity of life). The sixth commandment ('do not murder') is cited. The hospice movement is supported as an alternative.
120
What is the Islamic view on euthanasia?
Islam opposes euthanasia — life belongs to Allah alone and it is haram (forbidden) to end it prematurely. Patients should be cared for, not killed. Only Allah determines the time of death.
121
What is the Hindu view on euthanasia?
Hinduism generally opposes euthanasia — it interferes with karma and dharma. However, some Hindu texts support letting nature take its course, and there is debate about quality vs sanctity of life.
122
What is the Christian view on the environment?
Christians have a duty of stewardship — to care for creation on God's behalf. The Bible teaches God made the world good (Genesis 1) and humans are responsible for it (Genesis 2:15). Pollution and waste are failures of stewardship.
123
What is the Islamic view on animals?
Islam teaches that animals were created by Allah and have rights. Unnecessary harm to animals is forbidden. Halal slaughter aims to minimise suffering. Some Muslims oppose factory farming.
124
What is the Christian view on the origins of the universe?
Ranges from literal interpretation of Genesis (6-day creation) to theistic evolution (God used the Big Bang). Most mainstream Christians accept science but see God as the ultimate cause and source of meaning.
125
What is the Hindu view on the origins of the universe?
The universe undergoes endless cycles of creation, preservation and destruction (corresponding to Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva). Time is cyclical, not linear — there is no single 'beginning'.
126
What is meant by 'reincarnation'?
The belief that the soul (Atman) is reborn in a new body after death. The quality of the next life is determined by karma accumulated in this life.
127
What is the difference between resurrection and reincarnation?
Resurrection (Christian): the physical body is raised at the end of time; the same person is restored. Reincarnation (Hindu): the soul is reborn in a different body, possibly as a different person or creature.
128
What is the Christian teaching on judgement?
After death, humans face judgement by God. The parable of the sheep and goats (Matthew 25) teaches that those who helped the poor and suffering will receive eternal life; others will face punishment.
129
What is the concept of heaven in Christianity?
Eternal life in the presence of God — a state of perfect joy, peace and fulfilment. All suffering, sin and death are absent. Entry is based on faith and/or good works (views differ between denominations).
130
What is the concept of hell in Christianity?
Eternal separation from God — the consequence of rejecting God or dying in unrepented serious sin. Views range from literal fire to spiritual absence of God. Some Christians (annihilationists) believe hell means ceasing to exist.
131
What is Aquinas's First Way?
The argument from motion — everything that moves is moved by something else; there must be a first unmoved mover, which is God. Part of the cosmological argument.
132
What does 'John 3:16' say and why is it important?
'For God so loved the world that he gave his one and only Son, that whoever believes in him shall not perish but have eternal life.' — Key verse for the incarnation, crucifixion and eternal life. Shows God's love and the purpose of Jesus's death.
133
What is the Chandogya Upanishad?
One of the principal Upanishads — ancient Hindu texts. Contains the teaching 'Tat tvam asi' (That thou art) — the Atman is Brahman. Used to support Hindu beliefs about the unity of all souls with ultimate reality.
134
What is maya in Hinduism?
The concept of illusion — the apparent diversity and separation of the world is maya. In Advaita Vedanta, only Brahman is ultimately real; everything else is illusory.
135
What is the Hindu concept of samsara?
The cycle of birth, death and rebirth that the Atman undergoes based on karma. Liberation (moksha) is escape from samsara — union with Brahman.
136
What is Dvaita Vedanta?
A Hindu philosophical school (associated with Madhva) that teaches dualism — Brahman and the individual Atman are genuinely distinct. Opposed to Advaita Vedanta's non-dualism.
137
What are the Upanishads?
Ancient Hindu philosophical texts exploring the nature of Brahman, Atman and the ultimate reality. They form the basis of Vedanta philosophy. Key teaching: 'Tat tvam asi.'
138
What is the Ramayana?
A Hindu epic text telling the story of Rama (an avatar of Vishnu). Rama models ideal virtue, dharma and devotion. Used to understand Hindu beliefs about avatars and righteous living.
139
What is nishkama karma?
Action without attachment to the fruits — acting out of duty (dharma) without concern for personal reward or outcome. Taught by Krishna in the Bhagavad Gita (2:47).
140
What does Bhagavad Gita 2:47 teach?
'You have a right to perform your prescribed duties, but you are not entitled to the fruits of your actions.' — Teaches nishkama karma (desireless action). Central to understanding karma and free will in Hinduism.
141
What is Lakshmi?
The Hindu goddess of wealth, prosperity and good fortune. Consort of Vishnu. Represents the nurturing, abundant aspect of the divine feminine (Shakti).
142
What is Saraswati?
The Hindu goddess of knowledge, learning and the arts. Consort of Brahma. Represents wisdom and creativity — an aspect of the divine feminine.
143
What is Durga?
A fierce form of the divine feminine in Hinduism — the goddess who defeats evil. A manifestation of Shakti. Represents the power of the goddess to destroy evil and protect the good.
144
What is Kali?
A fierce Hindu goddess — a form of Shakti associated with time, death and destruction of evil. Often depicted with a dark appearance and weapons. She destroys evil to restore dharma.
145
What is Parvati?
The consort of Shiva and a gentle form of the divine feminine. She represents love, devotion and fertility. Also known as Uma. A manifestation of Shakti.
146
What is the significance of the Dashavatara?
The ten principal avatars of Vishnu — including Rama, Krishna, the Fish (Matsya) and the Tortoise (Kurma). Each avatar descends to earth at a time of cosmic crisis to restore dharma.
147
What is the Hindu view on the value of the world?
The world (creation) is a manifestation of Brahman and therefore has sacred value. Humans have a duty to care for it — ahimsa (non-harm) applies to the environment as well as to living creatures.
148
What is Cicely Saunders's contribution to the euthanasia debate?
A Christian nurse and doctor who founded the modern hospice movement. She argued that proper palliative care (pain management) removes the need for euthanasia — people can die with dignity without being killed.
149
What is Joseph Fletcher's situation ethics and when was it developed?
Developed in 1966 — the only absolute moral rule is agape (unconditional love). All decisions must be guided by what produces the most loving outcome. Rules are relative to the situation.
150
What did Dawkins argue about science and religion?
Richard Dawkins (The God Delusion, 2006) argued that science has made belief in God unnecessary and irrational. Evolution explains complexity without a creator. Religion is a meme — a cultural virus.
151
What is the anthropic principle?
The observation that the universe appears to be 'fine-tuned' for life — the physical constants are precisely right for humans to exist. Used by some (e.g. Swinburne) as evidence for a designer God.
152
What is Aquinas's Fifth Way (design argument)?
Everything in nature acts towards an end/purpose — but things without intelligence cannot do this unless directed by an intelligent being. That being is God. Similar to modern design arguments.
153
What is the 'problem of natural evil'?
The challenge that suffering caused by natural events (earthquakes, disease) cannot be explained by free will — humans did not choose it. Hardest for the free will defence to explain.
154
What is the Irenaeus/John Hick soul-making theodicy?
Suffering is not a flaw in God's creation — it is necessary for humans to develop virtues. The world is a 'vale of soul-making.' God maintains epistemic distance so faith is genuine.
155
What is meant by 'epistemic distance'?
John Hick's concept — God does not make his existence obvious, keeping a 'distance' so that humans can freely choose faith. If God were too obvious, faith would not be genuine.
156
What is the Augustine theodicy?
Evil is not created by God — it is the privation (absence) of good, caused by the Fall (human disobedience). God created a perfect world; humans caused evil. Contrasts with Irenaeus's forward-looking theodicy.
157
What is the difference between Irenaeus and Augustine on evil?
Augustine: God made the world perfect; humans caused evil through the Fall (backward-looking). Irenaeus/Hick: God intended the world to be imperfect so humans could grow — evil serves a purpose (forward-looking).
158
What does 'Matthew 25:31-46' (sheep and goats) teach?
At the final judgement, God separates those who helped the poor and suffering ('sheep' — enter heaven) from those who did not ('goats' — enter hell). Used in discussions of judgement and life after death.
159
What is the cosmological argument?
The argument that the universe must have a cause — and that cause is God. Associated with Aquinas (First, Second and Third Ways). The universe cannot have caused itself; there must be an uncaused first cause.
160
What is the teleological argument?
Another name for the design argument — the universe has a telos (purpose/end), implying a designer. Associated with Paley (watch analogy) and Aquinas (Fifth Way).
161
What is a theodicy?
An attempt to explain why a good and powerful God allows evil and suffering. The two main theodicies in AQA RS are: Augustine's (privation/Fall) and Irenaeus/Hick's (soul-making).
162
What is meant by 'revelation'?
God making himself known to humans. General revelation: through nature (available to all). Special revelation: through scripture, visions, miracles or the incarnation (to specific individuals).
163
What is the Quran's teaching on the origins of the universe?
The Quran teaches that Allah created the universe and all life. Some Muslims interpret this literally; others accept the Big Bang as Allah's method of creation. The universe is seen as a sign of Allah's power.
164
What is the Buddhist view on life after death?
Buddhists believe in rebirth (similar to reincarnation) — consciousness continues in a new form based on karma. The goal is nirvana — liberation from the cycle of rebirth. (Note: Buddhism is not always required for AQA RS depending on your specification.)
165
What is the Jewish view on life after death?
Traditional Judaism teaches resurrection of the dead at the end of time. Views on the afterlife vary widely — some focus on this life rather than the next. The World to Come (Olam Ha-Ba) is a concept in some traditions.
166
Analyse the quote: 'If Christ has not been raised, your faith is futile' (1 Corinthians 15:14).
Paul argues the resurrection is the foundation of Christianity. Without it, Christian faith has no basis — Jesus would simply have been a moral teacher who died. The resurrection confirms Jesus is divine and that Christians will also rise. This quote is used to show that the resurrection is arguably the most important Christian belief.
167
Analyse the quote: 'The Word became flesh and made his dwelling among us' (John 1:14).
This is the foundational statement of the incarnation — God entering human experience in Jesus. 'The Word' (Logos) connects Jesus to divine reason and creation. This verse shows Christianity teaches God is not distant but has directly experienced humanity. Used to support beliefs about Jesus's divine and human nature.
168
Analyse the quote: 'God created mankind in his own image' (Genesis 1:27).
This establishes imago dei — humans have unique dignity because they reflect God. It is used to argue for the sanctity of life (abortion, euthanasia debates) and human rights. It also raises questions about what it means to 'image' God — reason, morality, creativity, or relationship?
169
Analyse the quote: 'Tat tvam asi' (Chandogya Upanishad).
'That thou art' — the teaching that the individual soul (Atman) is identical to ultimate reality (Brahman). This is central to Advaita Vedanta non-dualism. It implies that all apparent separation between individuals and between self and God is illusion (maya). Used to support Hindu beliefs about Atman, Brahman and moksha.
170
Analyse the quote: 'You have a right to perform your prescribed duties, but you are not entitled to the fruits of your actions' (Bhagavad Gita 2:47).
Krishna teaches Arjuna nishkama karma — acting out of duty without attachment to outcome. This shows Hindus have free will (they choose to act) but should not be motivated by personal gain. Suffering is therefore not a punishment but a result of past karma — humans are responsible for their situation.
171
Analyse the quote: 'In the beginning, God created the heavens and the earth' (Genesis 1:1).
This establishes God as the creator and the universe as having a beginning — used to support ex nihilo creation. It is used in debates about science and religion — does 'beginning' correspond to the Big Bang? Some take it literally (young earth creationism); others see it as theological truth rather than scientific fact.
172
Analyse the quote: 'The Lord God took the man and put him in the Garden of Eden to work it and take care of it' (Genesis 2:15).
This is the basis of stewardship — humans have a God-given responsibility to care for the earth. 'Work it and take care of it' implies active management, not exploitation. Used in environmental ethics — stewardship means pollution and destruction of the environment are religious failures.
173
Analyse the quote: 'You shall not murder' (Exodus 20:13).
The sixth commandment — a direct prohibition on taking human life. Used to oppose abortion, euthanasia and capital punishment. The Hebrew word 'ratsach' is sometimes translated as 'murder' (unlawful killing) rather than all killing, which affects how it applies to war. Central to Christian ethics on life.
174
Analyse the quote: 'For God so loved the world that he gave his one and only Son' (John 3:16).
This verse summarises Christian soteriology — God's love motivates the incarnation and crucifixion. Jesus's death is not arbitrary but an expression of divine love. 'Whoever believes in him shall not perish but have eternal life' — faith is the condition for salvation. Used in discussions of the incarnation, crucifixion and eternal life.
175
Analyse Paley's watchmaker argument.
Paley (1802): if you found a watch on a heath, you would conclude it had a designer because of its complexity. The universe is similarly complex — therefore it must have a designer (God). Critiqued by Hume (could be many designers; imperfect design; apparent design can result from chance) and Darwin (natural selection explains complexity without a designer).
176
Analyse Hume's critique of the design argument.
Hume argued: 1. Design could be the result of chance, not intention. 2. Multiple designers might explain the evidence better than one. 3. An imperfect universe suggests an imperfect designer. 4. We cannot extrapolate from our limited experience of human design to divine design. These critiques undermine Paley's argument significantly.
177
Analyse the free will defence to the problem of evil.
God gave humans free will — moral evil results from human choices. This explains why God allows evil: he values freedom more than a world without suffering. Critiqued: 1. Does not explain natural evil. 2. An omnipotent God could have created humans with free will who always choose good. 3. Is free will worth the Holocaust?
178
Analyse Irenaeus's soul-making theodicy.
Evil and suffering are not God's mistake — they are necessary for human spiritual development. A world without suffering would prevent humans from developing virtues like courage, compassion and perseverance. Critiqued: 1. Some suffering is disproportionate. 2. Why couldn't God create virtuous humans directly? 3. Children suffering from cancer builds whose character?
179
What is a past paper question on the design argument worth 6 marks? Give a model answer structure.
'The design argument convincingly proves God exists. Discuss.' STRUCTURE: Level 1 (1-2): one-sided basic point. Level 2 (3-4): two views or one developed argument with teaching (Paley/Hume). Level 3 (5-6): FOR (Paley's watchmaker, fine-tuning, Aquinas Fifth Way) + AGAINST (Hume's critique, Darwin/evolution, argument is probability not proof) + named thinker + justified conclusion.
180
What is a past paper question on the problem of evil worth 6 marks? Give a model answer structure.
'A good God would not allow evil and suffering.' Discuss. STRUCTURE: FOR (logical problem — God's attributes are incompatible with evil; Mackie's inconsistent triad; the Holocaust) + AGAINST (free will defence; soul-making theodicy; Augustine — privation of good; Genesis/Fall) + teaching + justified conclusion explaining which response you find most convincing and why.
181
What is a past paper question on life after death worth 6 marks? Give a model answer structure.
'It is more important to focus on this life than life after death.' Discuss. FOR: No proof of afterlife; focus on making this world better; humanist view. AGAINST: Christian resurrection gives hope and motivates ethical living; Hindu karma/reincarnation shapes behaviour now; belief in judgement promotes justice. TEACHING: Bible, Bhagavad Gita, Quran. CONCLUSION: Whether afterlife beliefs motivate good living depends on the individual — but they provide meaning and hope even if unproven.
182
What is a past paper question on abortion worth 6 marks? Give a model answer structure.
'Abortion is always wrong.' Discuss. FOR: Sanctity of life — life begins at conception; Bible teaches God knows us before birth; sixth commandment. AGAINST: Situation ethics — the most loving outcome may justify abortion; mother's quality of life matters; Islamic 120-day rule allows exceptions. TEACHING: Bible, Quran, situation ethics. CONCLUSION: Most religious traditions oppose abortion in principle but recognise exceptions — 'always wrong' is too absolute.
183
What is a past paper question on stewardship worth 5 marks? Give a model answer structure.
'Religious people have a duty to protect the environment.' STRUCTURE: Point 1 — Stewardship: the Bible teaches God gave humans responsibility to care for creation — causing pollution is a failure of duty (developed + teaching). Point 2 — Khalifah: the Quran teaches Muslims are God's trustees of the earth — they are answerable to Allah for environmental damage (developed + teaching). Both points developed with WHY the concept leads to environmental responsibility.
184
What is the AQA mark scheme for 1-mark questions?
Award 1 mark for one accurate, specific definition or description. A vague or overly general answer scores 0. The answer must demonstrate knowledge of the specific term — e.g. 'omnipotent means all-powerful' not 'God is good.'
185
What is the AQA mark scheme for 2-mark questions?
Award 1 mark per valid, distinct point. Two marks maximum. Points must be genuinely different — repeating the same idea differently scores only 1 mark. No development required.
186
What is the AQA mark scheme for 4-mark questions?
Two points, each worth up to 2 marks. 1 mark for a valid point. 2nd mark for genuine development — explaining WHY or WHAT THIS MEANS. Simply listing two points scores maximum 2 marks.
187
What is the AQA mark scheme for 5-mark questions?
Two developed points (up to 4 marks, as per 4-mark scheme). The 5th mark is awarded for a relevant religious teaching, sacred text or named authority correctly referenced and applied. An exact verse is not required — 'the Bible says' counts.
188
What is the AQA mark scheme for 6-mark evaluation questions?
Level 1 (1-2): one view, basic or no development. Level 2 (3-4): two views OR one developed argument with teaching. Level 3 (5-6): balanced argument (both sides developed), at least one religious teaching correctly applied, clear justified conclusion. 6 marks requires the conclusion to be explicitly reasoned.
189
What is the difference between Level 2 and Level 3 in a 6-mark evaluation?
Level 2: presents two views or one side with teaching — but either lacks balance, teaching, or conclusion. Level 3: all three required — both sides argued with development + religious teaching + clear justified conclusion explaining WHY you reached it.
190
How should you structure a 6-mark evaluation answer?
1. Argue FOR the statement (with development and teaching). 2. Argue AGAINST the statement (with development). 3. Reach a justified conclusion — 'Overall I agree/disagree because...' You must explain WHY you reached that conclusion, not just state it.
191
How should you structure a 5-mark 'explain two' answer?
Point 1 (1 mark) + development of Point 1 (2nd mark) + Point 2 (3rd mark) + development of Point 2 (4th mark) + named religious teaching correctly applied (5th mark). Total = 5 marks.
192
What counts as a 'religious teaching' for a 5-mark question?
Any of the following: a named sacred text ('the Bible says', 'the Quran teaches', 'the Bhagavad Gita states'); a named religious scholar (Aquinas, Irenaeus, Paley); a named concept from a religious tradition ('Genesis teaches', 'the sixth commandment states'). An exact verse is NOT required.
193
What is development in an AQA RS answer?
Explaining WHY or WHAT THIS MEANS — not just repeating the point. Use phrases like 'this means', 'because', 'which shows', 'this is significant because', 'as a result'. A point without development scores 1 mark; a point with development scores 2 marks.
194
What topics appear in Christianity Beliefs for AQA RS?
The nature of God (omnipotent, loving, just); the Oneness of God and Trinity; Christian beliefs about creation; the incarnation and Jesus; the crucifixion; the resurrection and ascension; life after death.
195
What topics appear in Hinduism Beliefs for AQA RS?
Brahman and the Divine; the Tri-murti and avatars; the deities and female divine; Hindu cosmology and the universe; Atman and beliefs about human life; Sanatana dharma and personal virtue (free will and suffering).
196
What topics appear in Theme B (Religion and Life) for AQA RS?
Origins of the universe; value of the world; use and abuse of the environment; pollution; use and abuse of animals; origins of human life; abortion; euthanasia; death and the afterlife.
197
What topics appear in Theme C (Existence of God) for AQA RS?
The design argument; the first cause argument; the argument from miracles; general revelation; special revelation; the problem of evil and science and religion.
198
What is the difference between general and special revelation?
General revelation: God revealed through nature/creation — available to all people regardless of faith or text. Special revelation: God revealed to specific individuals through visions, scripture, dreams, miracles or the incarnation — not universally available.
199
What are the main religious arguments FOR the existence of God?
1. Design argument (Paley, Aquinas): complexity implies a designer. 2. First cause argument (Aquinas): everything has a cause — God is the first cause. 3. Argument from miracles: events defying natural law imply divine intervention. 4. Argument from religious experience: widespread personal encounters with the divine.
200
What are the main arguments AGAINST the existence of God?
1. Problem of evil: evil is incompatible with an all-powerful, all-loving God. 2. Science: the Big Bang and evolution explain origins without God. 3. Hume's critique of design: apparent design can result from chance. 4. Freud: religion is a psychological illusion (wish-fulfilment).
201
What is Hindu cosmology?
The Hindu understanding of the universe as eternal and cyclical — it goes through endless cycles (kalpas) of creation, preservation and destruction corresponding to Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva. Time is measured in vast cosmic ages (yugas). There is no single fixed beginning.
202
What is the Hindu view on the origins of human life?
Humans are not uniquely created — they are part of samsara. The Atman passes through many lives, including human lives, as part of its journey towards moksha. Human life is considered a valuable opportunity to accumulate good karma and progress towards liberation.
203
What is 'sanatana dharma' and why is it important?
'Eternal moral law' — sometimes used as an alternative name for Hinduism. It refers to the timeless duties and virtues all beings should follow. Following sanatana dharma means living righteously, fulfilling one's dharma and progressing spiritually.
204
What is the role of Brahma in the Tri-murti?
Brahma is the creator — he brings the universe into existence at the start of each cosmic cycle. He is often depicted with four heads representing the four Vedas. Less commonly worshipped in modern Hinduism than Vishnu or Shiva.
205
What is the role of Vishnu in the Tri-murti?
Vishnu is the preserver/sustainer — he maintains the universe and restores dharma through his avatars. He is one of the most widely worshipped Hindu deities. His consort is Lakshmi.
206
What is the role of Shiva in the Tri-murti?
Shiva is the destroyer — he destroys the universe at the end of each cosmic cycle to allow recreation. He also represents transformation and asceticism. His consort is Parvati. He is widely worshipped as the supreme deity in Shaivism.
207
What are the Vedas?
The oldest sacred Hindu scriptures — containing hymns, rituals and philosophical teachings. They are considered shruti ('heard') — directly revealed to ancient sages. The basis of Hindu religious practice and philosophy.
208
What is the difference between Advaita and Dvaita Vedanta?
Advaita (Shankara): non-dualism — Atman and Brahman are ultimately one; all separation is maya (illusion). Dvaita (Madhva): dualism — Atman and Brahman are genuinely distinct; the soul and God are separate even in moksha.
209
What is the Hindu concept of time?
Cyclical, not linear — the universe goes through endless cycles (kalpas). Each cycle includes four ages (yugas): Satya (golden), Treta, Dvapara and Kali (current — an age of spiritual decline). At the end of Kali Yuga, Shiva destroys the universe and Brahma recreates it.
210
What is the significance of the Mahabharata?
A vast Hindu epic containing the Bhagavad Gita. It tells of the conflict between the Pandavas and Kauravas. Its philosophical and ethical teachings — particularly on dharma, karma and duty — are central to Hinduism.
211
What is the relationship between Atman and Brahman?
In Advaita Vedanta, the Atman (individual soul) is identical to Brahman (ultimate reality) — apparent separation is maya (illusion). Realising this unity leads to moksha. The Upanishads express this as 'Tat tvam asi' and 'Aham Brahmasmi' ('I am Brahman').
212
What is 'Aham Brahmasmi'?
'I am Brahman' — a mahavakya (great saying) from the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad. It expresses the Advaita teaching that the individual self (Atman) is identical to ultimate reality (Brahman). One of the most important phrases in Hindu philosophy.
213
What is the Hindu attitude to the environment?
The world is a manifestation of Brahman — it has sacred value. Ahimsa (non-harm) applies to the natural world. Humans have a duty to live in harmony with creation. Pollution and exploitation of nature are contrary to dharma.
214
What is the significance of Diwali in relation to Hindu beliefs?
The festival of lights celebrating the return of Rama (avatar of Vishnu) — reaffirming beliefs about avatars, dharma and the victory of good over evil. Also associated with Lakshmi, the goddess of prosperity.
215
What is the 'problem of evil' as a philosophical argument?
The argument that the existence of evil disproves (or makes unlikely) the existence of a good, powerful God. If God is omnipotent, he can prevent evil. If omnipotent AND omnibenevolent, evil should not exist. Yet evil exists — therefore such a God probably does not exist.
216
What is Mackie's 'inconsistent triad'?
J.L. Mackie argued these three propositions cannot all be true simultaneously: 1. God is omnipotent. 2. God is omnibenevolent. 3. Evil exists. At least one must be false — most atheists conclude God does not exist.
217
What is the difference between 'moral evil' and 'natural evil'?
Moral evil: caused by human choices — murder, war, theft. Explained by the free will defence. Natural evil: caused by natural events — earthquakes, disease, floods. Harder to explain by free will, since humans did not choose it.
218
What is the 'inconsistent triad' and how do Christians respond?
The triad: omnipotent + omnibenevolent + evil exists — cannot all be true. Christian responses: 1. Free will defence (God values freedom). 2. Soul-making theodicy (suffering develops character). 3. Augustine (evil is privation of good caused by the Fall). 4. Mystery — God's ways are beyond human understanding.
219
What is the argument from miracles in detail?
1. A miracle is an event that breaks the laws of nature. 2. Natural laws cannot be broken by natural causes. 3. Therefore a miracle must have a supernatural cause. 4. The most plausible supernatural cause is God. 5. Therefore God exists. Criticised by Hume: extraordinary claims require extraordinary evidence; 'miracles' are more likely misreported natural events.
220
What did Hume say about miracles?
Hume argued: 1. No miracle has sufficient testimony to establish it as true. 2. Miracles come from uneducated, uncritical peoples. 3. Different religions all claim miracles — they cannot all be right. 4. It is always more probable that a witness is mistaken than that a law of nature has been broken.
221
What is a 'vision' as a form of special revelation?
A direct experience in which God (or an angel) appears visually to a person. Examples: Isaiah's vision of God (Isaiah 6); Muhammad receiving the first revelation from the angel Jibril; the vision of the risen Jesus to Paul on the road to Damascus.
222
What makes an event a 'miracle' according to religious believers?
1. It breaks the laws of nature. 2. It has a religious/divine significance. 3. It cannot be explained by natural causes. 4. It is often associated with prayer or holy figures. Examples: Jesus's healing miracles; the resurrection; the parting of the Red Sea.
223
What is the fine-tuning argument (a version of the design argument)?
The physical constants of the universe (e.g. gravity, speed of light) are precisely calibrated to allow life. If any were slightly different, life would be impossible. This 'fine-tuning' suggests a designer — God set the constants. Used by Swinburne and Tennant.
224
What is Richard Swinburne's contribution to arguments for God?
Swinburne (The Existence of God) argued that the existence of God is the simplest explanation for the universe — including its fine-tuning, the existence of consciousness and the occurrence of religious experiences. He uses probability (Bayes' theorem) to argue God is more likely than not.
225
What is the 'argument from religious experience'?
Many people across all cultures and times report experiences of the divine — feelings of unity, peace, visions, conversions. The sheer universality of religious experience suggests it corresponds to something real (God). William James documented and categorised these experiences.
226
What is Freud's critique of religion?
Freud argued religion is a psychological illusion — God is a projection of the father figure, created to deal with feelings of helplessness. Religion is wish-fulfilment. This does not disprove God but suggests an alternative, non-divine explanation for religious belief.
227
What is Marx's critique of religion?
Marx argued religion is the 'opium of the people' — it numbs the poor to their suffering by promising rewards in the next life, preventing them from seeking justice in this one. Religion serves the interests of the ruling class.
228
What is agnosticism?
The view that the existence of God is unknown or unknowable — neither believing nor disbelieving. Different from atheism (belief that God does not exist). An agnostic says 'I don't know'; an atheist says 'I don't believe.'
229
What is atheism?
The absence of belief in God, or the positive belief that God does not exist. Can be based on the problem of evil, the sufficiency of science, or philosophical arguments against God's existence.
230
What is the Hindu view on suffering?
Suffering is not arbitrary — it is the consequence of karma from past lives. This means suffering has a cause and a purpose. Hindus are encouraged to accept suffering as part of their spiritual journey and focus on generating good karma.
231
What is the Christian view on suffering?
Views vary: 1. Suffering is a result of the Fall (Augustine). 2. Suffering has a purpose — soul-making (Irenaeus/Hick). 3. God suffers alongside us — the crucifixion shows God understands suffering. 4. Suffering can bring people closer to God.
232
What is the 'via negativa' (apophatic theology)?
The approach to understanding God by saying what he is NOT — God is infinite, not finite; eternal, not temporal; immutable, not changeable. Used because God is beyond positive description. Contrasts with cataphatic theology (saying what God IS).
233
What does it mean to say God is 'just'?
God is perfectly fair — he judges all people according to their actions and faith. Justice is central to many Christian beliefs about judgement day and eternal life. God's justice must be balanced with his mercy and love.
234
What does it mean to say God is 'personal'?
God is not an impersonal force but a being who relates to humans — who can be prayed to, who loves individuals, who intervenes in history. Christianity emphasises God's personal relationship with humanity, particularly through the incarnation.
235
What is 'transcendence'?
God is beyond and above the created world — not limited by time, space or matter. Contrasted with immanence. A transcendent God is beyond human comprehension and is not part of the universe.
236
What is 'immanence'?
God is present within and active in the created world. Contrasted with transcendence. Christians believe God is both transcendent AND immanent — above creation but also active within it (e.g. through the Holy Spirit).
237
What is the 'Word' (Logos) in Christian theology?
The Greek term Logos ('Word' or 'Reason') used in John 1:1 — 'In the beginning was the Word.' Jesus is identified as the Logos — the divine reason/wisdom through whom all things were created, now made flesh in the incarnation.
238
What is the significance of the empty tomb?
The empty tomb is evidence of the physical resurrection — the body was not there. If the tomb were not empty, Christianity could have been disproved immediately. Christians use it to argue the resurrection was a real, bodily event, not just a spiritual experience.
239
What is the Apostles' Creed?
An early statement of Christian faith affirming: belief in God the Father (creator), Jesus Christ (born of Virgin Mary, crucified, resurrected, ascended), and the Holy Spirit. Used as evidence that the Trinity and resurrection are foundational Christian beliefs.
240
What is 'salvation'?
Being saved from sin and its consequences (death, separation from God). In Christianity, salvation is achieved through faith in Jesus Christ — his death atones for sin and his resurrection gives the promise of eternal life.
241
What is 'redemption'?
Being bought back or freed from slavery to sin. Jesus's death is described as a ransom — he paid the price to free humanity from sin. Closely linked to atonement and salvation.
242
Analyse the statement: 'Without the resurrection, Christianity is meaningless.'
FOR: Paul argues in 1 Corinthians 15:14 that without resurrection, faith is futile. The resurrection is the basis of Christian hope for eternal life. It proves Jesus's claims to be the Son of God. AGAINST: Jesus's moral teachings (Sermon on the Mount) have value regardless of the resurrection. The atonement provides forgiveness. Some liberal Christians focus on Jesus as a moral teacher rather than a risen saviour.
243
Analyse the statement: 'The design argument is the best argument for God's existence.'
FOR: It is based on observable evidence (the complexity and order of the universe). Fine-tuning is hard to explain without a designer. AGAINST: Hume undermines it philosophically; Darwin undermines it scientifically. The first cause argument (Aquinas) may be stronger — it is purely logical. Religious experience may be more personally compelling. CONCLUSION: No single argument proves God — they provide cumulative evidence. Different arguments persuade different people.
244
What is 'free will'?
The ability to make genuine choices — to do good or evil. God gave humans free will because genuine love and virtue require freedom. The free will defence uses this to explain moral evil. Both Christianity and Hinduism affirm human free will.
245
What is the Nicene Creed's statement on the Trinity?
'We believe in one God, the Father Almighty... and in one Lord Jesus Christ, the Son of God... and in the Holy Spirit.' It affirms all three persons as equally God — 'consubstantial with the Father.' Establishes the Trinity as orthodox Christian belief (325 CE, Council of Nicaea).
246
What is the Council of Nicaea (325 CE)?
A council of Christian bishops that produced the Nicene Creed — affirming the Trinity and the full divinity of Jesus. It condemned Arianism (the view that Jesus is a lesser being than the Father). Established Trinitarian theology as orthodox Christianity.
247
What is 'consubstantial'?
Of the same substance or nature — used in the Nicene Creed to describe the Son as being of the same divine nature as the Father. All three persons of the Trinity are consubstantial — equally and fully God.
248
What is the Chalcedonian definition?
Agreed at the Council of Chalcedon (451 CE) — Jesus is fully human AND fully divine, two natures in one person. He is not half-human half-divine, but completely both. This is the orthodox Christian position on the incarnation.
249
What is 'monism' in Hindu philosophy?
The belief that all reality is ultimately one — Brahman is the only real thing. All apparent diversity and separation (including individual souls) is maya (illusion). Associated with Advaita Vedanta and Shankara.
250
What is 'dualism' in Hindu philosophy?
The belief that Brahman and the individual Atman are genuinely distinct — they are not the same thing. Associated with Dvaita Vedanta and Madhva. Even in moksha, the soul remains separate from God rather than merging with Brahman.
251
What is the Hindu view on the origins of the universe compared to the scientific view?
Hindu: the universe is eternal and cyclical — no single beginning. Science: the Big Bang 13.8 billion years ago — a specific beginning. Hindu cosmology and the Big Bang can be seen as compatible (the Big Bang as one of many creations) or as conflicting (Hindu time-scales differ vastly from scientific ones).
252
What is the 'kalpa' in Hindu cosmology?
A vast cosmic cycle lasting approximately 4.32 billion years — one day of Brahma. At the end of each kalpa, the universe is destroyed (by Shiva) and recreated (by Brahma). Hindu cosmology is therefore cyclical and vast in time-scale.
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