Section 10: Decision Making & Problem Solving

Question 1

What is the just-noticeable difference (jnd)?

Answer 1

• The smallest physical difference you can reliably detect?

Question 2

What is the distance effect?

Answer 2

• The bigger the physical difference, the faster people decide they are different
• E.g., deciding whether 1lb vs 10lbs is different is faster than deciding 1lb vs 2lbs

Question 3

What is the symbolic distance effect?

Answer 3

• We compare symbolic values faster when the difference between symbols is greater
• e.g., 2 vs 5 = fast; 3 vs 4 = slow; rabbit vs elephant = fast; rabbit vs goat = slow

Question 4

What is the simon effect?

Answer 4

-People response faster when the required response matches the location of the stimulus even if location is irrelevant
- E.g., Tone in left ear & respond with right hand = slower than responding with left hand
- Spatial information!

Question 5

What is the semantic congruity effect?

Answer 5

• Decisions are faster when the question (“pick smaller” or “pick larger”) matches the category or semantic dimension
• E.g., with animals, “pick smaller” = faster if comparing small animals (mouse vs. rabbit); “pick larger” = faster if comparing large animals (hippo vs elephant)
• Context & expectations!

Question 6

What is the spatial-numeric association of response codes (SNARC) effect?

Answer 6

• Your brain treats numbers as if they live on a mental number line
• Small numbers to left, large numbers to right
• Responses faster with left hand for small numbers and right hand for large numbers (happens when hands are crossed! spatial!)

Question 7

What is deductive reasoning?

Answer 7

Reasoning from general –> specific (logic!)

Question 8

What is a syllogism (deductive reasoning)?

Answer 8

You have 2+ true premises and use them to reach a logical conclusion

Question 9

What is Johnson-Laird’s mental models?

Answer 9

People do not use formal logical rules but instead construct mental models of problems (basically simulated possibilities)

Question 10

What factors influence difficulty in mental models?

Answer 10

1. Belief bias (accept conclusions that fit beliefs)
2. Number of models needed (more mental models = harder)

Question 11

What is inductive reasoning?

Answer 11

Using specific examples to form a general conclusion (probabilistic!)

Question 12

What are major findings for generalization of specific information?

Answer 12

• Re: Give premises (“Swans have sesamoid bones; ravens have sesamoid bones”) then ask probability that a conclusion is true (“all birds have sesamoid bones”)
• Generalization increases with (1) number of premises; (2) typicality of premises (bears to all mammals is more likely than bats to all mammals); (3) diversity of premises (generalizing to all mammals is more likely from bears & mice than from lions & leopards)

Question 13

What is confirmation bias?

Answer 13

We look for evidence that confirms what we already believe (& ignore disconfirming evidence!)

Question 14

When problems don’t have clear answers we use…

Answer 14

Algorithms & heuristics!

Question 15

What is an algorithm?

Answer 15

• A step by step rule that guarantees an answer
• E.g., long division, solving a maze by always following the left wall
• BUT often slow/unavailable in most situations

Question 16

What are heuristics?

Answer 16

• Mental shortcuts that are fast but error prone

Question 17

What is a representative heuristic?

Answer 17

Judge likelihood based on how much something resembles a stereotype/typicality (e.g., linda problem)

Question 18

What is an availability heuristic?

Answer 18

Judge likelihood based on how easily examples come to mind (e.g., shark attacks are common bc they’re memorable)

Question 19

What is a simulation heuristic?

Answer 19

Events seem more likely if we can easily imagine them happening (e.g., missing train by 1 minute feels worse than 10 min)

Question 20

What is a framing effect?

Answer 20

• How information presented changes the decision (even when content is identical)
• E.g., 90% survival rate vs. 10% mortality rate

Question 21

What is Kahneman’s “Thinking Fast and Slow”

Answer 21

• System 1 = fast, automatic, frequent, emotional, stereotypic, heuristics, framing effects
• System 2 = slow, effortful, infrequent, logical, calculating
• Likely interact!

Question 22

What is gestalt psychology of problem solving?

Answer 22

• Focused on insight (“aha!”)
• Emphasized holism
• Lack of metacognition
• Early 20th century

Question 23

What is information-processing tradition of problem solving?

Answer 23

• Computer-like… search through a problem space
• Uses well-defined problems with a start, operator, and goal state

Question 24

What is insufficient coding (as an insight problem)?

Answer 24

• Misread or ignore crucial information

Question 25

What is the moses illusion (insufficient coding)?

Answer 25

- People except incorrect facts embedded in questions - E.g., How many animals of each kind did Moses take on the Ark? (*should be Noah* but lots of people miss it)

Question 26

What is the need for restructuring (as an insight problem)?

Answer 26

- Real issue is representing the problem incorrectly - E.g., 8 coin/9 coin problem

Question 27

What is functional fixedness?

Answer 27

- Tendency to use objects in their customary way - E.g., Two-string problem; candle problem - Must find new (nontraditional) use for object

Question 28

What is a negative set?

Answer 28

- Tendency to continue using a previously successful strategy when an even simpler one exists