What changed during the Scientific Revolution?
Knowledge shifted from authority and speculation to systematic observation, experimentation, and mathematical formulation of natural laws.
This marked a significant transformation in the approach to understanding the natural world.
Why did methodological innovation become necessary?
Because previous standards (authority, pure rationalism) could not reliably distinguish true knowledge from lucky or mistaken beliefs.
This highlighted the need for a more reliable method of inquiry.
What is the hypothetico-deductive method (HDM)?
- Formulate a hypothesis
- Deduce observable consequences
- Test them empirically
- Reject or tentatively accept the hypothesis
HDM is a systematic approach to scientific inquiry.
Why is HDM powerful?
It combines logical strength (deduction) with empirical testing, systematically linking theory to reality.
This method enhances the reliability of scientific conclusions.
What is Hume’s problem of induction?
Induction assumes that the future will resemble the past, but this assumption cannot be logically justified.
This raises questions about the validity of inductive reasoning.
What is the ‘uniformity of nature’ assumption?
The assumption that nature behaves consistently across time and space — necessary for induction but impossible to prove logically.
This assumption underlies much of scientific reasoning.
Why can induction never give certainty?
Because it is always logically possible for the premises to be true and the conclusion false.
This limitation challenges the reliability of inductive conclusions.
What problem does Popper identify in traditional science?
Scientific theories cannot be verified inductively — they can only survive attempts at falsification.
This perspective shifts the focus from verification to falsification.
What makes a theory scientific according to Popper?
It must be falsifiable — there must be possible observations that could prove it wrong.
This criterion distinguishes scientific theories from non-scientific ones.
Why is falsification methodologically important?
Deduction can logically demonstrate when a theory is false, reducing epistemic luck.
This enhances the robustness of scientific inquiry.
What is the difference between correlation and causation?
- Correlation shows statistical association
- Causation requires demonstrating that one factor produces another
Understanding this distinction is crucial in scientific research.
Why are randomized controlled trials (RCTs) considered the gold standard?
Randomization reduces confounding variables and minimizes lucky patterns in data.
RCTs provide strong evidence for causal relationships.
What is Inference to the Best Explanation (IBE)?
Selecting the explanation that best accounts for the available evidence, even if it is not logically guaranteed.
IBE is a common reasoning strategy in scientific practice.
What is Ockham’s Razor?
Among competing explanations, prefer the one that introduces the fewest assumptions.
This principle promotes simplicity in scientific theories.
What is Hempel’s covering-law model?
A scientific explanation deduces a phenomenon from general laws and specific initial conditions.
This model emphasizes the logical structure of scientific explanations.
What is the symmetry problem in Hempel’s model?
If A explains B, then B could (in principle) explain A — but real explanations are asymmetrical.
This highlights a limitation in the covering-law model.
What is the irrelevance problem in explanation theory?
A logically valid deduction can still fail to explain if the premises are irrelevant to the phenomenon.
This underscores the importance of relevant premises in explanations.
What is causal inference?
Reasoning aimed at identifying causes behind observable effects, often through controlled comparison.
Causal inference is essential for establishing causal relationships.
What does SC2 in the Grand Unifying Argument state?
Scientific method provides structured justification that reliably links belief to reality.
This emphasizes the role of methodology in scientific inquiry.
How does SC2 build on SC1?
SC1 makes reasoning visible. SC2 ensures that this reasoning is methodologically connected to reality through systematic testing.
This progression highlights the importance of both visibility and methodological rigor.
