1
Q
What is the scientific method?
A
The scientific method is the process by which researchers tackle research questions and hypotheses, producing observations, results, and conclusions.
2
Q
What is an observation in the context of the scientific method?
A
An observation about the world that doesn’t seem to make sense.
3
Q
Give an example of an observation.
A
When Louis forgot to cover a container of broth, it grew mold, but the covered container did not.
4
Q
What is a theory?
A
A theory is a well-substantiated explanation for a natural phenomenon that is broader than a single hypothesis.
5
Q
What do experiments do in relation to theories?
A
Experiments usually expand, support, or refute theories.
6
Q
What is an existing theory regarding mold?
A
Mold (and other small organisms) spontaneously forms.
7
Q
What is a hypothesis?
A
A proposed explanation of an observation. These are educated guesses to be tested.
8
Q
What must a hypothesis be?
A
Falsifiable: there should be a way to obtain data that would prove them wrong (if they are wrong).
9
Q
Provide an example of a hypothesis related to mold.
A
Something must get into the broth for mold to form.
10
Q
What does a hypothesis consider?
A
The current theory.
11
Q
What can a hypothesis sometimes do?
A
Support or not support the existing theory.
12
Q
What is the first step in study design?
A
Researchers must determine a question and hypothesis.
13
Q
What is operationalization?
A
The process of determining how things will be measured and what those data will represent.
14
Q
How does Louis operationalize his study?
A
He assumes the difference between a covered or uncovered container indicates whether something external could enter the container.
15
Q
What is the relationship between independent and dependent variables?
A
The dependent variable depends on the independent variable. Researchers change the independent variable during experiments and measure the resulting changes in the dependent variable.
16
Q
What is an independent variable?
A
An independent variable (also known as a factor, explanatory variable, or predictor) accounts for changes in the dependent variable and is often manipulated by the experimenter.
17
Q
What are factor levels?
A
Each factor has two or more levels, which are its potential values. Combinations of factor levels are called treatments.
18
Q
What is a confounding variable?
A
Confounding variables are variables that may also affect the dependent variable but aren’t measured independently.
19
Q
What is an example of independent and dependent variables in a study?
A
In a study where the independent variables are vitamin C and vitamin E supplementation, the dependent variable is colds caught per year.
20
Q
What is a categorical variable?
A
Variables that are categories.
Examples include favourite colour, mode of transportation used daily, and university major.
21
Q
What is a quantitative variable?
A
Variables that are numbers and behave like numbers.
Examples include height, weight, and salary.
22
Q
What are the levels of measurement for categorical variables?
A
Nominal and Ordinal.
23
Q
What is a nominal variable?
A
A variable that names something but has no meaningful order.
Example: An individual’s eye colour could be brown, hazel, blue, green, grey, or amber.
24
Q
What is an ordinal variable?
A
A variable that classifies data into ordered categories but does not convey the degree or magnitude of difference.
Example: Pain may be described as mild, moderate, or severe.
25
How can ordinal variables be represented?
Ordinal variables may be represented by numbers, but if you can't add or subtract meaningfully, it's not a quantitative variable.
26
What is an interval variable?
An interval variable measures the intervals between values on a scale.
## Footnote
Example: °C. The difference between 0 °C and 5 °C is the same as the difference between 5 °C and 10 °C. However, it has an arbitrary zero point, so the ratios between values are not meaningful.
27
What valid operations can be performed on an interval variable?
Valid operations: + and -.
28
What is a ratio variable?
A ratio variable has a meaningful zero and equal distances between points.
## Footnote
Example: K. Is 5 K infinitely hotter than 0 K? Yes! The kinetic energy of the particles is infinitely higher at 5 K than 0 K.
29
What valid operations can be performed on a ratio variable?
Valid operations: +, -, x, ÷, powers, logs, and everything else!
30
What type of variable is the height of a group of 8-year-olds measured in inches?
These measurements can form ratios, making it a ratio variable.
## Footnote
Example: A child who is 60 inches tall is one-and-a-half times taller than a child who is 40 inches tall.
31
If the average height of a sample of students is 50, how is the height of a student with 45 represented?
The student with a height of 45 is ranked with a -5, and the student with a height of 51 as +1.
## Footnote
In this case, 0 is a reference point and does not mean an absence of height.
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What must research methods abide by?
Ethical guidelines outlining proper care for the wellbeing of participants (human or animal).
35
What are experimental units?
The things being experimented on, which can be people, plants, animals, or inanimate objects.
36
What are participants in research?
Individuals involved in studies, typically referring to humans.
37
What should be considered regarding risks to participants?
Risks should only be taken if necessary and outweighed by expected benefits.
38
What rights do participants have regarding their involvement in a study?
Participants should be able to withdraw their participation at any time.
39
What is the importance of informing participants about a study?
Participants should be fully informed of the study's purpose.
40
What should researchers do if deception is necessary?
Researchers should inform participants as much as possible beforehand and reveal the true purpose afterwards, providing opportunities for questions.
41
What is a vulnerable population in research?
A group less able to protect its members' self-interests as test subjects.
42
What are examples of vulnerable populations?
People who lack cognitive capability, linguistic abilities, or are in poverty.
43
What is the ideal approach when working with vulnerable populations?
Work with vulnerable populations should ideally be work for vulnerable populations.
44
What is a key consideration regarding ethical research?
Experiments cannot be conducted on a participant without their informed consent.
45
Is deception always unethical in research?
Not every study requires deception; it is acceptable if debriefing occurs.
46
What are Experimental Studies?
Experimental studies are designed to test a hypothesis by modifying one or more variables.
47
What are negative controls in experimental studies?
Negative controls are procedures not expected to produce results.
## Footnote
Example: A placebo, such as a saline injection instead of a vaccine.
48
What are positive controls in experimental studies?
Positive controls are procedures with well-understood, usually positive effects.
## Footnote
Example: A previously established vaccine.
49
What are the stages of Experimental Designs for human studies?
1. Ensure sample represents population
2. Recruit
3. Sort
4. Repeat
50
What is the importance of recruiting randomly in experimental studies?
Random recruitment helps ensure that differences are roughly evenly spread out between experimental and control groups.
51
What is the purpose of sorting participants into control or experimental groups?
Sorting helps separate predictable, important differences and ensures that all groups have similar variables.
52
Why is it important to repeat experiments with many subjects?
Repeating experiments increases reliability and allows for validation by other researchers.
53
What are the two main types of sampling methods?
Probability Sampling and Non-Probability Sampling
54
What is simple random sampling?
Select participants purely randomly.
55
What is cluster random sampling?
Select clusters of participants randomly.
56
What should be true about clusters in cluster random sampling?
The clusters should be similar to each other, other than the intervention you're applying.
57
Provide an example of cluster random sampling.
You wish to determine if adding fluoride to drinking water decreases the frequency of cavities in the population. You add fluoride to the drinking water of three townships and not to another three townships. The 6 townships are clusters.
## Footnote
Example of cluster random sampling.
58
What is stratified sampling?
Sort population into subpopulations, then randomly sample proportionately from those subpopulations.
59
When is stratified sampling used?
When you suspect that the subpopulations might be different in the variable of interest.
60
Provide an example of stratified sampling.
You suspect Ontarians and Québécois will vote differently in an upcoming federal election. You survey twice as many Ontarians as Québécois.
## Footnote
Example of stratified sampling.
61
What is snowball sampling?
Initial participants are found, then they refer researchers to other participants.
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What is the population in research?
The group that we wish to know about (e.g., Canadians who can vote).
63
What is a sample in research?
A sample of participants recruited from the population (e.g., 400 Ontarians, 200 Québécois, etc.).
64
What is a statistic?
A conclusion based on a sample.
65
What is a parameter?
If the whole population were to be measured.
66
How are statistics related to parameters?
Statistics are estimates of parameters.
67
What is the purpose of sorting participants in research?
To reduce bias in the experiment.
68
What is bias in the context of research methods?
Bias is when an experiment artificially skews results in a certain way.
69
What can introduce hidden variables when sorting participants?
Sorting based on arrival time to the lab can introduce hidden variables.
70
What is the overall aim of sorting participants?
To reduce bias.
71
How are individuals sorted in a random sorting method?
Individuals are sorted randomly into the trial and control groups.
72
What is a potential problem with the vaccine trial example?
If the reaction depends on gender, the study may be skewed due to imbalances.
73
What is the gender distribution in the vaccine group of the example?
The vaccine group is 75% female.
74
What is a consequence of a small group in research?
It can lead to imbalances in the study.
75
What is the first step in Block Design?
Group first, then randomize.
76
How should participants be grouped in Block Design?
Group by gender, then ensure equal numbers in each group.
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What are the two groups in Block Design?
Placebo and Vaccine.
78
What potential problem may arise in Block Design?
If the reaction depends on age, young people's responses may skew the study.
79
What is a Matched Pair Design?
Each participant has a partner that matches them on target variable(s).
80
What variables might participants be matched on in Matched Pair Design?
Age, gender, smoking status, etc.
81
What is a potential issue in Matched Pair Design?
Difficulty finding a pair for a participant.
82
What is blinding in research methods?
Blinding refers to who knows whether a participant is in the experimental or control group.
83
What is an unblinded study?
In an unblinded study, everyone knows which participants are in which group.
84
What is a single-blind study?
In a single-blind study, the participant doesn't know which group they're in, but the researcher does.
85
What is a double-blind study?
In a double-blind study, neither the participant nor the researcher knows which group the participant is in. Only a third party knows.
86
What is a limitation of a matched pair design?
A limitation of a matched pair design is that it requires a knowledge of important variables before the study begins.
87
What is another limitation of a matched pair design?
It cannot control for more than one variable at a time.
88
What is a potential issue with matched pair design regarding age?
It fails to account for age as an independent variable.
89
What is a requirement for matched pair design regarding participants?
It requires identical twins, who are not necessarily representative of the general population.
90
What are observational studies?
In observational studies, scientists observe variables without manipulating them.
91
When are observational study methods used?
Observational study methods are often used if an experimental method is difficult for reasons of feasibility, affordability, or ethics.
92
What type of studies are observational studies usually?
Observational studies are usually correlational studies, meaning they seek to correlate two or more variables.
93
What is a case-control study?
Case-control studies study two groups: one that has a certain outcome and one that doesn't. Then, the values of another variable are compared between groups.
94
What is an example of a case-control study?
Example: 500 people are recruited; 250 that had a baby die of SIDS, 250 that have not.
## Footnote
Sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) is the cause of death for roughly 1/1000 babies.
95
What is a longitudinal study?
Longitudinal studies study one sample over time.
96
What is an example of a longitudinal study?
Example: 500 people's step counts and LDL concentrations are tested in the present time. Two years later, they are tested again.
## Footnote
Are changes in step count and LDL cholesterol correlated?
97
What is a cross-sectional study?
Cross-sectional studies study a sample at one point in time.
98
What is an example of a cross-sectional study?
Example: 5000 people's LDL cholesterol and average daily step counts are tested.
## Footnote
Is there a correlation between step count and LDL cholesterol?
99
What are cross-sequential studies?
Cross-sequential studies somewhat combine cross-sectional and longitudinal studies. They study the same groups over time, but the groups differ based on some variable.
100
What is an example of a cross-sequential study?
Example: 50 people aged 20-30, 30-40, 50-60, and 60-70 have their LDL cholesterol and step counts measured. Two years later, they are tested again.
## Footnote
Are changes in step count and LDL cholesterol correlated, and do those correlations depend on age?
101
What are quasi-experimental studies?
Interventions applied, but not randomly; often longitudinal.
102
What do case studies focus on?
They dig deeply into few cases, such as a particular criminal's motivations or situation.
103
What is a mixed methods approach?
It combines multiple quantitative and qualitative methods to provide a more complete picture.
104
Which study is most appropriate to determine risk factors related to hairy cell leukemia?
A case-control study.
105
What is statistics?
Statistics is a method of interpreting and describing data in a mathematical way.
106
What do descriptive statistics describe?
Descriptive statistics describes data. It does not seek relationships within it.
107
What are the two main uses of descriptive statistics?
Descriptive statistics are used for measures of central tendency and measures of dispersion.
108
What do measures of central tendency estimate?
Measures of central tendency estimate the center position of values in a data set.
109
What do measures of dispersion describe?
Measures of dispersion describe how spread out the values of the data are.
110
What is the y-axis in a probability distribution?
The y-axis is frequency.
111
What is the x-axis in a probability distribution?
The x-axis is the variable of interest (e.g., mass).
112
What is discrete data?
Discrete data are numerical data restricted to certain (usually integer) values.
113
Give an example of discrete data.
Example: Rolling a die, can only yield 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6. You can't get a 5.6.
114
What is continuous data?
Continuous data are not restricted to certain number values.
115
Give an example of continuous data.
The mass of a person can be 63 kg, 62.6 kg, 62.6321685 kg.
116
What are two common continuous probability distributions?
Two common continuous probability distributions are uniform and normal.
117
Provide an example of a uniform distribution.
An example of a uniform distribution is the date/time of birth.
118
Provide an example of a normal distribution.
An example of a normal distribution is the heights of Canadian women.
119
What are the properties of normal distributions?
All normal distributions have the same properties: they are applicable, have a bell shape, are symmetrical, the mean is in the center, and the area under the curve is 1.
120
Is the number of mugs of coffee sold in a restaurant discrete or continuous?
Discrete
## Footnote
The number of mugs of coffee sold is countable.
121
Is the height of a student in an MCAT preparation course discrete or continuous?
Continuous
## Footnote
Height can take any value within a range.
122
Is the number of patients entering an emergency room on a particular day discrete or continuous?
Discrete
## Footnote
The number of patients is countable.
123
What is a percentile?
A percentile is the smallest score greater than or equal to X% of data.
124
What does it mean if 44% of data falls below the 44th percentile?
It means that 44% of the data in a range will fall below or at the 44th percentile of said range.
125
What is the 50th percentile also known as?
The 50th percentile is also known as the median value or middle.
126
What are quartiles?
Quartiles split the data into four portions: the first, second, third, and fourth quartiles correspond to the 25%, 50%, 75%, and 100% percentiles respectively.
127
What does the first quartile (Q1) represent?
The first quartile (Q1) is larger than 25% of the observations.
128
What does the second quartile (Q2) represent?
The second quartile (Q2) is larger than 50% of the observations and is the same as the median.
129
What does the third quartile (Q3) represent?
The third quartile (Q3) is larger than 75% of the observations.
130
What is the formula for the Interquartile Range (IQR)?
Interquartile Range (IQR) = Q3 - Q1
131
What are the quartiles for the data set 5, 10, 11, 12, 15, 18, 20?
For the data set 5, 10, 11, 12, 15, 18, 20, the quartiles are: Q1 = 10, Q2 = 12, Q3 = 18.
132
What are the three common measures of central tendency?
Mean, Median, Mode
133
How is the mean calculated?
By adding up all the data points in a set and dividing by the number of data points.
134
What is an advantage of the mean?
It takes all values in a data set into account, helping to minimize error in predictions.
135
What is a disadvantage of the mean?
It can be dramatically skewed by an outlier.
136
How is the mean represented?
By * (sample mean) or u (population mean).
137
What is the median?
The middle value of an ordered set.
138
How is the median calculated if the set has an even number of values?
It is the mean of the two middle values once arranged.
139
What is the relationship between the mean and median in a symmetric distribution?
They are the same.
140
What is the mode?
The value that occurs most frequently in a set.
141
What do measures of dispersion describe?
Measures of dispersion describe how spread out the data are.
142
What are the three main measures of dispersion?
1. Range
2. Interquartile Range
3. Variance/Standard Deviation
143
How is the range calculated?
The range is calculated by subtracting the smallest value in a set from the largest value.
## Footnote
Example: For 5, 10, 11, 12, 15, 18, 20, the range is 20 - 5 = 15
144
What does the interquartile range (IQR) measure?
The IQR measures the spread of the center half of the data.
145
How is the IQR calculated?
IQR = Q3 - Q1
## Footnote
Example: For the data set 5, 10, 11, 12, 15, 18, 20, the IQR is 18 - 10 = 8.
146
What are standard deviation and variance?
Standard deviation and variance are two other measures of dispersion.
147
What do standard deviations represent?
The standard deviation is denoted by s for a sample and o for a population standard deviation.
148
How is variance related to standard deviation?
Variance is simply the square of the standard deviation (i.e., o² or s²).
149
How are standard deviations often represented on graphs?
Standard deviations are often shown on graphs as error bars.
150
What does the five-number summary of a distribution consist of?
The five-number summary consists of the minimum number, Q1, Q2 (median), Q3, and the maximum number.
151
What is a boxplot?
A boxplot provides a graphical display of the five-number summary and is useful for making comparisons between two or more distributions.
152
What are the minimum and maximum values for Section A in the box plot example?
For Section A, the minimum value is about 64, while the maximum value is approximately 92.
153
What are the quartiles marked in the box for Section A?
The quartiles for Section A are marked as 70, 73, and 86.
154
How can outliers affect statistical values?
Outliers can strongly affect the values of the mean and the standard deviation and can be misleading.
155
What is standard error?
Standard error is the standard deviation of a sampling distribution.
156
How do researchers convey uncertainty in their findings?
Researchers often report a range of values within which the true value is likely to fall, rather than just one estimated value.
157
What is precision in measurements?
Precision refers to how closely individual measurements of some value agree with one another.
158
What is accuracy in measurements?
Accuracy is a measure of how closely individual measurements of some value agree with the true value.
159
What is error in measurements?
Error is the difference between the true value and a given measurement.
160
What is random error?
Random error occurs in all types of measurements and is created by lack of instrument sensitivity as well as human errors. It decreases precision.
161
What is systematic error?
Systematic error shifts all measurements in one direction, leading to bias, and decreases accuracy.
162
What is observer bias?
Observer bias occurs when an observer intentionally or unintentionally records a measurement incorrectly.
163
What is instrument bias?
Instrument bias results from consistent malfunctioning of an instrument.
164
What is subject bias?
Subject bias results from situations in which study subjects intentionally or unintentionally misrepresent information.
165
Example of observer bias?
A dentist reporting cavities that don't exist to perform more extractions.
166
Example of instrument bias?
A dentist's crown gauge is bent, thus reporting lengths that are too long.
167
Example of subject bias?
(Most) people telling their dentist they floss every day.
168
Explain
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169
What is a confidence interval?
A confidence interval is an estimated range of values that is likely to include an unknown population parameter at a given confidence level.
170
What does the confidence level represent?
The confidence level is the probability that the interval estimate contains the population parameter.
171
What is the common interpretation of a 95% confidence level?
Based on the collected data, one can be 95% confident that the population parameter is contained in the interval.
172
What happens if we repeated the study many times at a 95% confidence level?
About 95% of the resulting intervals would include the true parameter.
173
What is the general form of a confidence interval?
estimate ± margin of error (m)
174
What is the relationship between confidence level and interval width?
Higher confidence = wider interval; Lower confidence = narrower interval.
175
What is the formula for calculating the confidence level?
confidence level = 1 - α-value
176
What is the upper limit and lower limit of the given confidence interval?
Upper limit = 0.0025; Lower limit = 0.0009.
177
What was the average arsenic concentration in Guelph, Ontario in 2017?
There was an average of 0.0017 ± 0.0008 mg/L (95% confidence) of arsenic in drinking water.
178
What is an alpha-level (a)?
An alpha-level (a) is a pre-determined cutoff value for how sure one must be to report 'significant' findings.
179
What is a common alpha-level used in statistical analysis?
A common cut-off is a = 0.05.
180
When is a result reported as statistically significant?
Results are reported as 'significant' if p < 0.05.
181
What does a p-value lower than 0.05 indicate?
It indicates statistical significance.
182
What is the confidence level formula?
1 - d = confidence level.
183
What is the confidence level at a = 0.05?
A 95% confidence level (p < 0.05) is largely arbitrary.
184
What are the decision rules for hypothesis testing?
If p-value < a, then reject Ho. If p-value ≥ a, then fail to reject Ho.
185
What does a smaller alpha-level (a) indicate?
The smaller the a, the more stringent the test.
186
If a null hypothesis is rejected at the 95% confidence level, what can be said about the 99% level?
It may be rejected or not rejected at the 99% level.
187
What does rejecting the null hypothesis indicate?
Rejecting the null hypothesis indicates there is a statistically significant level.
188
What are the two decisions made in a hypothesis test?
1. Reject the null hypothesis
2. Fail to reject the null hypothesis
189
What is a Type I error?
A Type I error occurs if the null hypothesis is rejected when it is true (false positive).
## Footnote
Example: Claiming vitamin supplementation is associated with fewer colds, but later finding no association.
190
What is a Type II error?
A Type II error occurs if the null hypothesis is not rejected when it is false (false negative).
## Footnote
Example: Claiming vitamin D supplementation is not associated with fewer colds, but later discovering an association.
191
What is the probability of a Type II error called?
The probability of a Type II error is called beta (β).
192
What does a p-value represent in hypothesis testing?
A p-value is the probability of obtaining a sample statistic as extreme as (or more extreme than) the one determined from the sample data, assuming the null hypothesis is true.
193
What is the maximum probability of a Type I error when α = 0.05?
The probability of a Type I error is a maximum of 5%.
194
What is the maximum probability of a Type II error when α = 0.05?
The probability of a Type II error is not necessarily a maximum of 5%.
195
What is the maximum probability of a Type I error if it is 95%?
The probability of a Type I error is not a maximum of 95%.
196
What is true about the probabilities of Type I and Type II errors?
None of the above statements about the probabilities of Type I and Type II errors are correct.
197
What is correlation?
Correlation estimates how much two variables are related and can include any kind of variable.
198
What are examples of correlation types?
1. Nominal vs interval: Family structure and child IQ scores.
2. Nominal vs nominal: Voting record and viewpoints on abortion.
3. Ratio vs ratio: Age and higher wealth.
199
What is a correlation coefficient?
A correlation coefficient (r) measures the association between two variables and can vary from -1 to 1.
200
What does a correlation coefficient of 1 indicate?
A correlation coefficient of 1 indicates a perfect linear relationship with a positive slope.
201
What does a correlation coefficient of -1 indicate?
A correlation coefficient of -1 indicates a perfect linear relationship with a negative slope.
202
What does a correlation coefficient of 0 indicate?
A correlation coefficient of 0 indicates that there is no linear association between two variables.
203
Does correlation establish causation?
Correlation does not establish which variable is causing the other; it merely indicates that the two variables are related.
204
What does r = -0.90 indicate?
r = -0.90 indicates a strong negative correlation.
205
What does r = 0.00 indicate?
r = 0.00 indicates no correlation.
206
What does r = 0.90 indicate?
r = 0.90 indicates a strong positive correlation.
207
Which of the following would likely be negatively correlated?
Binge drinking and impulsive behaviour.
208
What is simple linear regression?
Simple linear regression describes how one variable is associated with another and is an extension of correlation.
209
How is data displayed in simple linear regression?
Data are displayed in a scatterplot, with the 'explanatory' variable on the x-axis and the 'responsive' variable on the y-axis.
210
What is the line of best fit?
A straight line fitted to the data that allows researchers to estimate extended values of the responsive variable based on known values of the explanatory variable.
211
What is the equation of the line of best fit?
The equation is in the form y = mx + b, where m is the slope of the line and b is the y-intercept.
212
Example
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Example
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216
What is a chi-square test used for?
A chi-square test is used when all variables are categorical.
## Footnote
Example: Are people who watch action vs. romance movies more likely to buy popcorn, slushies, or both?
217
What is a t-test used for?
A t-test is used to compare the average values of a quantitative variable between two categorical groups.
## Footnote
Example: Is life expectancy different between Canadians and Americans?
218
What is ANOVA used for?
ANOVA is like a t-test, but for more than two groups.
## Footnote
Example: Is life expectancy different between Canadians, Americans, and Mexicans?
219
What should you understand about statistical tests for the MCAT?
You should understand which types of variables they work with and how many groups each test can accommodate.
220
What does validity describe in a study?
Validity describes the degree to which the conclusions drawn by a study are reasonable.
221
What is temporality in the context of causality?
Temporality is the idea that, for variables to be causally related, the independent variable must occur before the dependent variable.
## Footnote
Example: Dog hears 'walk' becomes happy then wags its tail.
222
What is external validity?
External validity refers to the ability of a research design to provide results that can be generalized to other situations, especially to natural ('real-life') situations.
223
What is face validity?
Face validity refers to when something seems like it should work (works 'on its face').
224
What factors contribute to high external validity?
High external validity depends on two factors: 1. The participants included in the sample should be a representative sample of the population. 2. The physical setting of the research should be similar to the natural situation.
225
What is an example of high external validity?
Randomly selected participants from the population with autism in their homes.
## Footnote
This allows for better generalization of results.
226
What is an example of low external validity?
Randomly selected participants from the overall population in a sleep lab.
## Footnote
This setting is less representative of real-life situations.
227
What are ethnographic methods?
Ethnographic methods are ones that observe people in their cultural setting.
228
Example
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229
What is a subatomic particle?
A subatomic particle is a particle smaller than an atom.
230
What is an atom?
An atom is the basic unit of a chemical element.
231
What is a molecule?
A molecule is a group of atoms bonded together.
232
What is an organelle?
An organelle is a specialized subunit within a cell.
233
What is an electron?
An electron is a negatively charged subatomic particle.
234
What is a proton?
A proton is a positively charged subatomic particle.
235
What is a neutron?
A neutron is a subatomic particle with no charge.
236
What is a cell?
A cell is the smallest unit of life.
237
What is tissue?
Tissue is a group of cells that work together to perform a specific function.
238
What is an organ?
An organ is a collection of tissues that perform a specific function.
239
What is an organ system?
An organ system is a group of organs that work together to perform complex functions.
240
What is a person?
A person is an individual member of the species Homo sapiens.
241
What is a two-person relationship?
A two-person relationship includes interactions such as doctor-patient or between friends.
242
What is a family?
A family includes nuclear and extended families linked by marriage or birth.
243
What is a community?
A community is a group of people coming together in a larger unit.
244
What does it mean for a community to be ideologically determined?
It means the community is formed based on shared beliefs or ideologies.
245
What is culture?
A culture is a collection of beliefs, practices, morals, knowledge, customs, laws, rituals, and other capabilities and habits characteristic to a group of people. Culture can be transmitted through social learning, both across generations and within them.
246
What is a subculture?
A subculture is a smaller group that has some small subset of differentiating values within a culture.
247
What is a counterculture?
A counterculture has more substantial differentiating values from the culture.
## Footnote
Example: In North America, vegetarianism is a subculture and PETA (People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals) is a counterculture.
248
What is a society?
A society is a large social group sharing the same geographical or social territory, usually subjected to the same political authority and overall cultural expectations.
249
What is a nation?
A nation is a cultural-political community that is unified mostly by impersonal, political needs.
250
What is the biosphere?
All the living things on Earth and all the areas they inhabit.
PREP101 MCAT
flashcards
Decks in class (16)
# Cards
