Progress
The idea that societies move from “primitive” to “advanced,” often criticized as ethnocentric and based on technological bias.
Development
A concept suggesting societies move through stages toward modernization; widely critiqued for assuming Western economic models are universal.
Hunters and Gatherers
Small-scale, mobile foraging groups relying on wild resources rather than domesticated plants or animals.
Slash‑and‑burn (Swidden) Agriculture
A horticultural technique involving clearing and burning vegetation to enrich soil, followed by fallow periods.
Horticulturalists
Small-scale farmers using simple tools and shifting cultivation rather than intensive agriculture.
States
Large, centralized, stratified societies with formal political structures and intensive agriculture.
Savagery / Barbarism / Civilization
Lewis Henry Morgan’s 19th‑century evolutionary stages of human development, now considered outdated and ethnocentric.
Cultural Evolution
The idea that cultures change over time in patterned ways; interpreted differently by theorists like Morgan and White
Technological Determinism
Leslie White’s view that technology is the primary driver of cultural evolution.
Industrial Agriculture
Large-scale, mechanized farming dependent on chemical inputs and high energy use.
Swidden Agriculture Problems
Challenges such as land scarcity, long fallow periods, and inefficiency when population grows
Population Density
The number of people in a given area; central to Mark Cohen’s theory explaining the shift to agriculture.
Concentric Foraging Circles
Cohen’s model showing how expanding population forces foragers to exploit increasingly distant resources until agriculture becomes necessary.
Sedentism
The shift from nomadic movement to permanent settlement, often associated with agriculture.
Agricultural Intensification
Increasing labor, technology, or land use to boost food production, often leading to stratification and state formation
Stratified Society
A society with unequal access to resources, power, and status.
Modernization
The assumption that societies naturally progress toward industrial, Western-style systems; critiqued for ignoring cultural diversity.
Arturo Escobar
Anthropologist who critiques development discourse and identifies common misconceptions about economic growth and global integration.
Globalization
Increasing interconnectedness of economies and cultures, often benefiting wealthy nations while disadvantaging local farmers and Indigenous groups.
World Bank
A global financial institution promoting development projects, often criticized for contributing to inequality and displacement.
