1
Q
how should i write emails to prof
A
- only put PSYC 351 in subject line
- address correctly; don’t resend, prof only answers tuesdays or thursdays
2
Q
pavlovian condiiotoning is___; it involves ____ # of stimuli
A
passive;2
3
Q
pavlovian cond; if the metronome and meat pose are paired at the same time e, which is US and which is CS
A
metronome is CS; meat power is US; salivation at meat power is UR; salivation at only metronome is SR
4
Q
how does pavlovian conditioning work
A
the US and The CS are paired at same time; US naturally produces the UR; the CS will come to elicit the CR after trials of pairing
5
Q
difernee between instrumental (operant) and pavlovian cond
A
pavlovian learning; critical environment and contingency is that between 2 stimuli (CS and US)
instrumental cond; the critical environment contingency is between animals own response and the events that follow (reinforcer)
6
Q
explain instrumental conditioning in basic terms
A
action and outcome; if you don’t get outcome X that you want, how can you change behaviour to get that outcome
R= reinforcer contingency; contingency cue between animals action and events that falls as result
7
Q
different levels of analysis in studying learning
A
- molecular changes in neurons/nerve cells and their connections (synapses)
- neural systems, like neurotransmitter systems and neural circuits
- changes in the behavior of intact organisms
8
Q
why do we study learning using animals
A
- able to isolate the process and factors in animals by controlling the environment
- neurobiology; less ethical dilemmas
- simple supremos approach
animals models can lead to benefits fro humans - evolution of intelligence; track back learning
9
Q
learning as defined as
A
experience dependent change in the mechanisms underlying behaviour; change in the potential for enacting behaviour; relatively enduring change
10
Q
fatigue
A
may look like habituation from learning, but its motor fatigue; temporary decrease in behaviour caused by overuse of muscles
11
Q
maturation
A
when physiological developments allow someone to do diff things; ie when som done grows taller now they can reach stuff on top shelf
12
Q
general process approach
A
search for universal laws; there’s diversity in how animals act; search for universal laws and finding broadly applicable learning g processes and laws of association
focus on underlying g common al.itues across learning situations
universal learning g riles
13
Q
experimental process approach
A
exp control; lab (isolated but abnormal environment) vs naturalistic observation methods
14
Q
historical roots of assoctaive learning: 3 traditions
A
philosophy of mind (descartes, thomas hobbes, locke)
russian physiology (sechenov, pavlov)
evolutionary theory(darwin, thorndike)
15
Q
descartes main contribution s to associative learning
A
mind/body dualism; physical vs non physical, voluntary/involuntary
nativism; all human are born with common ideas, innate; god, self
reflex; basic mechanism of involuntary behavioour
16
Q
who was thomas Hobbes
A
British empiricist
proposed laws of hedonism ; meaning beams pursue pleasure and avoid pain
17
Q
who was john locke
A
tabula rasa idea; mind is a blank slate and peoples knowledge is shaped by experience after birth
elementalism; building bl.ocks of learning are associations between simple sensations
associationism; law of temporal contiguity
used to inform kants a priori
18
Q
who was david hume
A
british empiricist; alongside locke, thought the mind receives only simple sensations; forms associations between them to crew complex ideas
19
Q
Descartes mind/body dualism reflected 2 traditions:
A
mentalism; contents and workings of mind
reflexology: mechanism of reflexive behaviour
- form foundation of modern learning studies
20
Q
descartes: reflexes
A
humans engage in behaviours auatomatically as a response to external stimuli, and volunteering tearily asa result of free will
21
Q
Descartes; cartesian dualism
A
2 classes of human behaviour:
- voluntary; doesn’t ahem to be triggered by ext stem; occurs because of conscious intent
- voluntary: auto reactions to external al stimuli and mediated by mechanism called reflex
22
Q
what was Descartes wrong about in regard to reflexes
A
- assertion that animals can only access involuntary behaviour/refl;exes; while humans have involuntary and voluntary
- nerves were not hollow tubes that transported animal spirits;
23
Q
what are the two classes of rules of associationism formed by british empiricists (& theorists)
A
primary(aristotle)
secondary(thomas brown)
24
Q
rules of associationism: primary (3)
A
- contiguity; if 2 events repeatedly occur together in space or time, they’ll become associated
- similarity; ; association formed if 2 things are similar
- contrast ; less evidence; association formed if 2 things are different
25
rules of associationism: secondary (4)
- intensity of stimulus
- frequency of events being paired
- recency; fresh on mind
- experience; prior similar experience
26
_____ began empirical investigation of rules of associationism in 19th cent
Hermann Ebbinghaus;
27
Hermann Ebbinghaus came up with what test procedures
nonsense syllables; 3 letter combos w no meaning; allowed him to look at strength of associations formed in diff ways; more frequent repeiriton, increased training etc
28
who were 2 main russian physiologists
sechenov and pavlov
29
what did sechenov believe
that all behaviour was controlled by stimulus antecedents; believed reflexes ted as trigger for behaviours
30
ivan pavlov developed what
a method to study learning nd the brian; used to study empirical laws; excitatory and inhibitory responses; unconditioned d and condition ed reflexes control behaviour
31
early empirical investigation: thorndike
law of effect; will repeat action if positive effect
32
early empirical investigation: john watson
behaviourist manifesto; nurture and conditioning does everything; give him any infant and can condition to be the same
33
early empirical investigation: little albert experiment
by watson and rayber 1920; white rat paired with loud scary ouse; 9 mo infant fear conditioned to be afraid of the rat
34
early empirical investigation: ebbinghaus
mentalistic tradition of associations
Associations change behaviour, can learn with no outward behavior change
35
evolutionary theorists; 2
darwin and thorndike
36
darwin; 3 theories/ideas
mental continuity among species
species diversity
evolutionary theory
37
darwin;mental continuity among species
justified search for general laws of behaviour
Brain structures lead to universal similarities
38
darwin; species fdiversity
Similarities explain differences; finches all have beaks, but beaks differ
39
darwin; evolutionary theory (2 pt.)
Random genetic variation
- Genetic recombination; mutation; genetic flow
Natural selection
- Evidenced by antibiotic resistant bacteria
- Mutation creates variation; unfavorable mutations selected against; reproduction and mutation occur; favourable mutations (that increase fitness or lifespan) more likely to survive and reproduce
40
thorndike proposed...
law of effect; Illustrated through his law of effect
Random response variation
Reinforcement ‘selects’ correct response by strengthening a connection between the Stimulus situation and the correct response (S-R association)
Pruning behaviour by outcome
41
elicited behaviour is..
Any kind of behavior, innate or learned, that is demonstrated or drawn out in response to stimulus; simple reflexes
42
complex behavioural sequences...
often comprised of a series of reflexes that need to work together
Reflex—stimulus—purpose
Ie touch a babies cheek, head turns toward touch with purpose of seeking nipple
43
modal action patterns
Sequences of reflexive behaviors; examples of species-typical behaviour
ie human infants suckling g to feed
often use coordinate set of muscles
44
sign stimuli
the limited stimulus feature thats engaging enough to elicit a modal action pattern is called sign stimulus; very attention grabbing; sometimes called a releasing stimulus
45
appetitive behaviour
Its highly variable and flexible and occurs before a sign stim is presented to elicit a MAP
Ie in feeding system, appetitive behaviour iis responses in searching for a patch of food; spatial cues
46
consummatory behaviour
Occurs after the organization successful sought out and encounters stimuli; then behavior become stereotyped and focused
Ie after looking for a food patch and foraging, squirrel encounter a nut; then it cracks sit open
Consummatory modal action patterns end response sequence because they discharge the motivation or drive state
47
short term change in behaviour : motivation
hypothetical state that increases probability of behaviours that function to satisfy a goal; ie feeding, copulation
48
short term changes in behaviour (3)
- fatigue; muscle exhaustion
- motivation; reactive states that encourage goal oriented behaviours
- change in stimulus condiions; ie pebble in shoe will make u walk funny
49
long term behaviour changes(not learning)
- maturation; phsycial changes taht enable new behaviours; ie grow taller, can reach top shelf; doesn't need practice which means its not learning
- evolution; phnsycial c he across successive generations bc bette reproductive success
50
what's S-S association/learning
when we leanrn a relationship between 2 stimuli or events; learned association thy isn't reflected in behaviour
51
observable behaviour is called____; depends on ___, ___, & ___
performance; motivation, stimulus conditions, behavioural opportunities inenvironemtn
52
behaviour is a product of the
nervous system
53
2 basic ways to study learning
naturalistic observations; can provide description. info about behaviour, but cannot ID causal variables; unsuitable for learning
experimental observations; measure behaviour under manipulated conditions o test specific variables; causal conclusions are inferences for comparing 2 or ore experiment al. conditions
54
control problems/sonsequenses of learning experiments through between group comparisons
learning cant be investigated using naturalistic observation
control procedure run learning exp must be designed as carefully as experimental
learning investigations min 2 groups of participants
55
learning; single case experimental design
single case; usually multiple participants; no control group; person examined before and after training; info from preliminary process is called baseline data
useful in translational, clinical research
56
some have argued for alternatives to lab animals, including (4)
observational, research
studying plants
studying tissue cultures
studying computer simulations
all are ineffective give
57
learning is evident in...
chan ge in mechanisms/potential for behaviour change; suppression or acquisition of hbehaviour
58
learning is a ___ variable, so....
causal; it can only be investigated with experimental methods
59
simplest units of unconditioned behaviour are (2)
reflexes and modal acton patterns
60
BF skinner introduced the term/cocnept:
shaping; type of condition where new behaviours are produced by reinforcing successive approximations to the behaviour
ie akin to shaping wood; wood is heterogenous; psychologists have to work around preexisting behaviour iorual tendencies dies
61
62
to understand learning we have to understand that learning/conditoig is imposed on a ______ structure
heterogeneous, preexisting behavioural structure or substrate
63
descartes reflex arc
entire reflex unit, from eliciting stimulus in put to response output is termed reflex arc; from sensory neuron, which activates interferon, which activates motor neuron
64
ethology is
specialty in biology around evolution and development of functional units of behaviour
65
unconditioned heterogenous behavioural substrate
reflexes and modal action patters are the smallest unit of this behavioural organization; learning is imposed in this system
knowing what stimuli and responses are involve important to be able to control them
66
unconditioned behaviour: motivational face tors
motiv atonal state of an oragansim coordinates modal action patterns
sign stimuli releases the modal action pattern only when organism is in a specific motivational state
67
hydraulic model of behaviour
motivational factors affect how modal action patterns are organized; certain factors lead to buildup of motivational drive; motivational state encourages modal action patterns and the oppuittunity to perform the behaviours reduced the motivational state
68
response sequence that discharges a motivational stet has 2 parts
appetitive behaviour; initial component of a species' behavioural sequence
consummatory behaviour; ends response sequence
69
behaviour systems (3 parts)
include series of response odes and modules
general search, focal search, consummatory behaviour
70
behaviour systems: general search
organism reacts to gen features of enviro with responses that enable it to come into contact with stimuli
organism is responsive to general environmental cues and spatial cues
71
behaviour systems: focal search
Once animal has identified potential stimuli, it switches into focal search to approach and examine stimuli
behaviour is governed by cues of stimuli
72
behaviour systems; consummatory behaviour
encounter with the stimuli and response models enacted by specific features of the stimuli
73
3 types of non associative learning
habituation , dis habituation, sensitization
74
habituation is
Decline in responsiveness ot a stim with repeated exposures/trials, but arising from ‘central’ changes
75
what are central changes in context of habituation(the neural process)
response process moves from sensory neuron to interneuron to motor neuron; sensory neuron connects with a motor muscle which triggers a physical response
76
how do we prove habituation is occurring when we see decrement (decrease) in response
ensure it is a result of central changes, not peripheral changes
77
2 types of peripheral change mechanisms isms that seem like habituation
sensory adaptation and motor/response fatigue
78
sensory adaptation
lowered or no response to same stimulus after repeated presentations
reduction in functioning of a sensory receptor
79
how do we rule out motor fatigue
change stimulus, and test the same response
if response is back after the change in stimulus, motor fatigue is ruled out
79
motor fatigue
loss of response/ response level decrease to ANY stimulus
80
response recovery is
recovery is responsiveness of an already habituated response after disruption
can be bc diff stem is presented, or time without stim
80
dishabituation
when exposure to a n over stimulus results in the recovery of responding when previously habituated stimulus is reointroduces
81
long- and short- term habituation is
LONG-TERM; good higher/long term habituation results from longer ISI
long staying power, maintained
shows stronger reduction in responding (habituation effect)
SHORT-TERM; more intensive spontaneous recovery
82
who first studied long and short term habituation in rats
Michael Davis
83
ISI means
inter stimulus interval; time between successive intervals of stimulus presentation; time between repeated exposures to stim
84
sensitization is
increase in response to a stimulus the presented in a generally arousing content
not neccesarily stimulus specific
85
can habituation and sensitization affect responding at the same time?
yes; the effects can appear as separable; but the underlying neural processes are integrated; ie habitation effects you see are the net sum of the sensitization processes and habitation process
86
descartes; 3 aspects of reflexes
VIGOR of an elicited response is directly related to the intensity of the eliciting stimulus; energy needed for reflex response is provided by eliciting stimulus
Believed that a reflex response will ALWAYS OCCUR when eliciting stim is presented
Reflexes were INVARIANT and inevitable reactions to eliciting stimuli
87
orienting response is
reaction to novel stim that involves turning toward the source of stimulus
But if all stimuli elicited response we'd waste energy looking around at every stimuli; so habituation an sensitization moderate our responsiveness
88
spontaneous recovery is
common feature of habituation; recovery that occurs because of a period of no stimulus exposure; linger a period is=more recovery
89
flavour neophobia
organisms are cautious about ingesting unfamiliar flavours; but the neophobic or aversive response will become habituated after repeat exposure; ie kid drinks coffee for first time
90
spontaneous recovery and short/long term habituation
long term= no spontaneous recovery; long lasting learning effects
short term; spontaneous recovery occurs; less evidence of learning, short lasting
91
effects of stimulus frequency and intensity in habituation
higher frequencies of repoiriton result on more long term habituation and more rapid/strng habitation effect
gen really, responding declines more slowly when stimulus is high intensity BUT repeat presentations of a high intensity stimulus lead to more substantial habituation
92
how do we rule out sensory adaptation
use dishabituation; ie If the decrease in responding of the chick to the predator call had been sensory adaptation and not habituation, then presentation of the dishabituator white noise would not have produced recovery in freezing to the predator call, when original repose was reintroduced
93
dual process theory if habituation and sensitization developed by who
groves and thompson 1970
94
S-R system is...(3 parts)
shortest path between eliciting stimulus and resulting elicited response
sensory/afferent neuron
interneuron
efferent or motor neuron
95
short term vs long term sensitization
short; decays as a function of time without presentation of stim
long; evident even after long episodes without stimulation; fits criteria of learning
96
state system is..
consists of all neural processes that aren’t an integral part of the S-R system but that influence its responsivity
97
habituation occurs in the ___ system; sensitization occurs in the ____ system
S-R; state
98
explain the dual process theory of habituation and sensitization
opponent mechanisms that modulate reflex responsivity
When the habituation process is stronger than the sensitization process, the net effect is a decline in behavioral output (left)
If the sensitization process is stronger than the net effect is an increase in behavioral output (right)
99
dual process theory; when an eliciting stimulus, ____ is always present, while _____ may or may not be
habituation process (not effect) is always present when S-R site is activated; sensitization not always activated
100
why is it that whenever an eliciting stimulus is presented, the S-R system and habituation processes are activate but we don't see habituation effects
sometimes it is counteracted by activation of the sensitization process
and so the net sum is behavioural output (sensitization effects) because the sensitization process is stronger
101
sensitization can be elicited by
intense or significant stimuli
eliciting stimuli that also active the S-R system
another event that potentiates the activation of the S-R system
102
habituation is a____ of elicited behaviour
universal property; bc of activation of s-r system by any stimulus
103
colwill; 3 problems of measuring habituation just as a reduction in responding as elicited by stimuli
- blurs distinction between learning and performance
encourages views that strength of habituation is measurbale through size of decrease in response; comparable across conditions
obscures need t include controls for learning effects
104
colwill; why is the wagner SOP model better than other models of examining habituation
successfully controls for some confounding variables
speaks to long term habituation better than dual process theory
connects habituation and associative learning; depends on learning g associations between stimulus and context
105
whitlow rabbit study; ruling out motor fatigue (graph 1)
you have 4 groups(AA, BB, AB, BA); 2 are same stim (AA, BB) and 2 are different stim(AB, BA)
at event 2, the different groups response stayed the same, while the same groups response decreased
this means that group same shows habituation or sensory adaptation bc decrease in response
group different is not habituation or sensory adapt bc no decrease and bc there's new stimulus, and it isn't motor fatigue bc response is the same at event 1 and event 2
comparing same and diff groups, same's response is lower than different at event 2, indicating habituation or maybe sensory adaptation
106
whitlow rabbit study; ruling out sensory adaptation (graph 2)
you have 8 groups(AA, BB, AB, BA, AxA, BxB, AxB, BxA); 4 are same stim (AA, BB, AxA, BxB) and 4 are different stim(AB, BA, AxB, BxA); but you present distractor/dishabituator (X) in between event 1 and event 2 for 4 groups (AxA, BxB, AxB, BxA)
group different is like a control group; because they get a diff stim, they definitely detect it and it cant be habituation (stim specific); thus, since group same and diff are about the same level, both groups detect the stimulus they're presented (not sensory adaptation) and its not habituation
this tells us the dishabituator is effectively in the first graph could still be habituation
107
strong emotions tend to be ____
biphasic; meaning emotion s ar pairs opposites; fear-relief
108
the primary emotion or reaction tends to become _____ upon repeated stimulus; accompanied by a _____ of the secondary emotional/after reaction
weaker; strengthening
109
explain solomon and corbits 1974 opponent process theory
2 opposing processes combine to create overall emotional affect; leads to decreased emotional response when stimulus occurs, but lasting opponent response when stimulus is removed; trying to maintain homeostasis
110
solomon and corbits 1974 opponent process theory; 2 parts
a process; initial response to stimulus; almost always initiates the b process; doesn't change over time
b process: generates an opposite emotional response, can change over time
repeated exposures to particular experience/emotion lead to stringer b-process response
111
what is manifest affective response
the net sum of the a process and b process; affect of the a-process of behaviour — the b-process of behaviour
affective response increases when stimulus is presented , then begins decline, drops below zero (oppositional emotional response) then returns to baseline state
112
opponent process theory of emotion: describe how a process and b process occur in initial exposure
a process occurs unopposed to b; when a reaches its peak, b process is activated
a is stronger than b; b lingers longer
ie if you give beer to a student who has never drank before (initial expose), they'll feel the effects immediately (a process), and not be as hungover (b process)
113
opponent process theory of emotion: describe how a process and b process occur in repeat exposure
still some a process emotional response but its weak; the stimulus is gone, big refractory period of opponent b process
b lasts longer stronger effect on behaviour
ie if you give beer to someone who's been drinking for years (repeat expose), they'll feel less of an effect (a process), and feel more hungover (b process)
114
iva pavlov classical conditioning to accomplish
new reflexes to stimuli can be acquired through learning
115
classical parochial conditioning has 4 parts
-unconditioned stimuli (US); stimulus that elicits response requiring no training
-conditioned stimulus (CS); first it begins neutral, paired with US to try to elicit responses
-unconditioned response (UR); response to stimulus not gained through learning
-conditioned response (CR); response that has been conditioned to a formerly neutral stimulus, and that now occurs at just the presentation of this CS
116
if dog salivates when the bell (CS) and food (US) are both presented, what kind of response is the salivation?
we don't know, have to isolate and present only us or cs
117
if the bell has been paired with the food and presented to a dog many times, and now when the dog is presented with only the bell and begins to salivate, what kind of response is this
conditioned response (CS)
118
object learning
where diff features of an object become associated with each other
initial pavlovian experiments used visual cues of food (not a bell) to elicit salivation response in dogs
119
does the conditioned response have to be the same response as the union dittoed response?
no
120
conditioning a dog to salivate at a bell after pairing it with food is transformation of learning into_____.
performance
121
pavlovian conditioning; 3 kinds of basic paradigms
reflexive; salivation, condoned eye blink
hedonic; conditioned taste aversion
motivational/emotional; conditioned emotional response, conditioned suppression
122
2 main types of aversive conditioning
eye blink conditioning and conditioned taste aversion
123
eyeblink conditioning procedures
aversive cond
used lots on rabbits, also humans
air puff (US) is delivered to eyeball as aversive stimulus to make animal blink (UR)
pair US with something like light or tone at same time (CS) and see if you can cond rabbit to blink at just the CS
124
conditioned taste aversion
most rapid association/learing occurs if stimulus is more averse/intense and if novel flavour is followed by aversive consequence; ie you drink tequila and barf and never again
the shorter the interval between the CS and US, then stronger the association ie smith and roll experiment with rats, sweet water (CS) followed by shocks (US) so they avoid the sweet water
125
conditioned taste aversion: disgust example
plastic taste (CS) is paired with induced nausea (US)
this leads to the condoned response of disgust (CR) when plastic is presented; while the UR is vomiting and disgust
this is an ex where the CR and UR can be and are different
126
conditioned flavour preference
conditioning someone to like cherry flavoured water (CS) by pairing it with sucrose (US)
UR is pleasure received from sucrose
so CR would be conditioned preference for cherry flavour bc of the association w sucrose
127
fear conditioning; 4 responses
conditioned freezing
potentiated startle
conditioned suppression
avoidance
128
fear conditioning; conditioned freezing
put rat in skinner box; habituate t environment; then present a tone (CS) followed by shock (US)
conditioned rats may show increase in conditioned freezing by freezing immediately when tone is presented; whereas control rats won't freeze at the tone
129
fear conditioning; potentiated startle
put rat in skinner box; habituate t environment;
- CS+ (CS is paired with US, light & shock)
- CS- (animals exposed to light (CS) only)
- N/A (control group, no conditioned stim, just startle stimulus)
startle stimulus/noise present in all groups; looking to see if CS-, or CS+ increase startle response
N/A group habituates; baseline response for no potentiated startle
CS- startles at same time, habituates more slowly, light influences state system
CS+ consistent potentiated starts that doesn't decline; increases the startle the most
130
fear conditioning; conditioned suppression
put rat in skinner box; habituate t environment; then present a tone (CS) followed by shock (US)
there's a lever to press to get food; looking at if shock suppresses feeding behaviours, can tone be cond/associated with shock to also suppress feeding
if animal presses food level same amount of times during baseline and CS, no association/learning (suppression ratio of 0.5)
if animal doest press food level at all during CS, the most learning has occurred (suppress ratio of 0)
131
fear conditioning; avoidance
put rat in skinner box; habituate t environment;
CX+ present a shock in chamber 1
CX- no shock in chamber 2
if more time spent in chamber 2, means they're avoiding chamber 1 bc fear of shock
132
appetitive conditioning; 2 kinds
goal tracking/ magazine approach cond.
sign tracking/autoshaping
133
appetitive conditioning: goal tracking/magazine approach
Tone is the CS, food is the US
Monitoring the food cup, approach using the tone
Paired animals: as we pair the CS with the US, the behaviour increased, so they're learning=aka goal tracking
when CS occurs, they move towards US
134
appetitive conditioning: sign tracking/autoshaping
Light is the CS; food is the US
Pecking the light during the CS
behaviour that tracks the CS not the goal
135
sexual conditioning
cue predicting a sexual encounter will likely facilitate one
Experiment: presentation of a visual stim prior to access to a receptive female japanese qual
Visual CS—sexual activity US; conditioned approach to CS
136
drug conditioning
Context CS (plus where drug is avilible)—drug US; drug response
Tolerance is context specific; think opponent process theory
Conditioned compensatory CRs tolerance is context specific
137
associative learning is
one event (stimulus or response) becomes linked to another so that the first even activates a representation of the second
138
what did BF skinner think of pavlovian conditioning
thought it was limited to physiological reflexes and ignored learning that manipulated the environment
139
PSYC 351
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