1
Q
Three threats to causal inference and how to control against each?
A
o Does cause precede effect?—Pre and post testing
o Relationship between DV & IV? –Comparing pre and post testing
o Third variable problem?—Post testing and random assignment
2
Q
Classical experiment
A
Research design with 3 components- pre/post test, experimental/control groups and random assignment
3
Q
quasi-experiment
A
- Research design that includes out, but not all, elements of an experimental design
- does not use random assignment
4
Q
Experimental group
A
Subjects in experiment who receive the experimental treatment
5
Q
double blind
A
Neither participants nor researcher know which group is experimental or control
6
Q
Placebo
A
Drug administered that is not actually a drug to eliminate
7
Q
Threats to internal validity (12)
A
- History
- Maturation
- Testing
- Instrumentation
- Statistical Regression
- Selection Bias
- Experimental Mortality
- Causal time order
- Diffusion of treatments
- Compensatory Treatment
- Compensatory Rivalry
- Demoralization
8
Q
History
A
- External events can effect study results
- Ex. Terrorist attack, tsunami, death
9
Q
Maturation
A
- People constantly growing
- Ex. young kids are deviant = mature and grow
10
Q
Testing
A
- Process of testing & retesting
- ex. people change their answer to what they want to hear after seeing it already
11
Q
Instrumentation
A
- Changes in measurement process
- ex. update survey and try and compare with old data using old surveys
12
Q
Statistical regression
A
- Extreme scores regret to the mean
- ex. extreme scores will usually go back down to the mean
13
Q
Selection bias
A
- Way in which subjects are chosen
- ex. people choose groups, experimenter selects place convenient for them
14
Q
Experimental mortality
A
- when subjects drop out prior to experiment completion
15
Q
Causal time order
A
- IV or DV come first, may only collect data at one time point
- Check which comes first
16
Q
Diffusion of treatments
A
- Experimental group may pass on elements to control group, have contact w/ eachother
17
Q
compensatory treatment
A
- control group deprived; researchers compensate
18
Q
compensatory rivalry
A
- control group deprived; may compensate by working harder
19
Q
Demoralization
A
- Feelings of deprivation among control group affect results at post-test
20
Q
Non-equivalent groups design
A
- Select subjects in a way that makes the 2 groups as comparable as possible
21
Q
time series deigns
A
- A type of quasi-experimental design where changes in a DV are monitored over some time period
22
Q
Cohort design
A
- Group of subjects that enter or leave an institution at the same time
- ex. groups of people who graded in may
23
Q
Case oriented research
A
- Many cases are examined to understand a small number of variables
24
Q
variable-oriented research
A
- Large number of variables are studied for a small number of cases or subjects
25
Representative sampling
- All population members have known & = chance of being sampled
26
Probability Sampling
- Sampling in which the probability that en element will be included in a sample is known
27
Non-probability sampling
- Sampling which the probability that an element will be included in a sample is not known
28
Equal probability of selection method (EPSEM)
- representativeness achieved if sample charac. = population charac.
29
Standard error
- how far away we find scores device away from the mean
30
Confidence intervals
- how confident you will get results near the mean range
31
4 types of non-probability sampling
- Purposive/judgemental sampling
- Quota sampling
- Reliance on available subjects
- Snowball sampling
32
Purposive/judgemental sampling
- select a sample based on our own knowledge of the population, its elements, and the nature of our research aims
33
Quota sampling
- use matrix or table to describe the characteristics of the population we want to represent
34
Reliance on available subjects
stopping people on a street corner or other location
35
Snowball sampling
ask one subject, then that subject tells others, and etc.
36
Survey
- A data collection method that applies a standard instrument in a systematic way to take measures from a large number of units
37
Matrix Questions
- ask respondents to select 1 answer against a range of related topics
- Ex. strongly disagree--- strongly agree
38
Contingency question
- An answer to one questions prompts whether you answer the next or answer another question
Ex. If yes, answer ques 21
39
3 ways to administer surveys
- self administered questionnaires
- in person interviews
- Telephone surveys
40
Self administered questionnaires
- mail, computer online surveys,
cheap and easy, can allow for large number of responses
- Not everyone will reply honestly
41
In person interviews
- ask questions orally
- More likely to get honest answers
- Costly, lots of time, not many people want to sit for it so small SS, people may feel uncomfortable talking about certain topics
42
Telephone surveys
- Researchers appearance will have no effect on answers
- low time and cost
- computer assisted telephone interviews , computers dial up phone numbers
43
3 rules of interviewing
- Appearance and demeanour: dress in fashion to those similar to who they are interviewing
Familiarity with the questionnaire: researcher should not stumble
Probing for responses: make sure probes are neutral
44
Qualitative interview
- A verbal interaction between an interviewer and a participant that follows a general plan of inquiry, but not necessarily a specific set of questions
45
3 main features of qualitative interview
- Richness, meaning and shared cultural views
- Critical realist approach
- Platform for creating questions
46
Critical realist approach
- A philosophical view that reality exists, but knowledge is constructed through multiple meanings
47
3 types of qualitative interviews
- structured/semi-structured interview
- Unstructured interviews
- Focus group interviews
48
Natural focus group
- individuals in group may already be acquainted or have an existing connection
49
Artificial focus group
- People selected according to criteria
50
unstructured interview
- most open style of interviewing, no guidelines
51
focus group
interview groups of people at same time
52
Tree-and-branch
main topic with branching questions
53
river-and-channel
main streams of questioning that lead into the main channel
54
4 main steps of gaining access to formal organizations
- Sponsor, find sponsor in related field
- Letter, email, tell what you will do for study
- phone call and follow up
- Meeting, further explain intentions and how this will benefit them
55
ethnography
- detailed and accurate description (what and how)
56
4 roles field observer could take on
- complete participant
- participant-as-observer
- observer-as-participant
- complete observer
57
complete participant
- Researcher told unknown to subjects; participate fully as member of studied group
- ex. study hells angels, become hells angels = break law?
- "Going native"= acting like group you study
58
Participant-as-observer
- Researcher role known to groups subjects; still participate as member of studied group
- Participants may act differently
59
Observer-as-participant
- researcher role known to subject; do not participate as member of group studied
- People may act different
60
complete observer
- researcher role (& often identity) unknown; observes w/o participating w/ subjects
- May not fully understand process
61
4 ways to record observations during field research
- note taking/tape recording: interviewing or dilation of observations
- Photos/videos
- field notes: field journal
- Structured observations: observers mark closed ended forms
62
Strength of field research
o High validity
o Depth of understanding
o Flexible
o Better for measuring behavior
63
Weaknesses of field research
o Not everyone can be studied this way
o Reliability- not asking everyone same ques
o Not generalizable
o May not represent entire population
64
Obtrusive measurement
- People are aware data are being collected
65
Unobtrusive measurement
- People are unaware that data are being collected
66
Agency records (3 subtypes)
- Collect vast amount of crime and CJ data
- Published ex. stats
- Nonpublic agency records ex. study internally (police officers)
- New data collection by agency staff
67
Content Analysis
- Examines class of social artifacts (any recorded document)
- Not created for research but can be examined
- Ex. blink video
68
Secondary Analysis
- Analyzing data collected by other researchers
69
"hybrid source"
- Combines collection of new data by agency staff w/ day to day agency activities
70
Manifest content
- visible, surface content vs. ex. blinks
71
Latent content
- Underlying meaning, ex. lying
72
Descriptive statistics
- Computations that describe either the characteristics of a variable or that relationship among variables
73
Inferential statistics
- Computations for making inferences from findings based on sample observations to some larger population
74
Univariate
examines distribution of cases only one variable at a time
75
Bivariate
two variables involved
76
Multivariate
examines relationships among several variables
77
Central tendency
- Clustering of observations to a midpoint in a distribution
- Mean (average), Median (middle attribute) and Mode (most frequent)
78
Dispersion
- Distribution of values around some central value, such as average
- Range, Standard deviation, CI
79
Rate
- Standardize some measure for comparative purposes
| - Allow us to make more meaningful comparisons
80
Proportional reduction of error
- Used to summarize the association between two variables
81
Lambda
- Represents the reduction in error as a proportion of the errors that would have been made based on the overall distribution
- used for two nominal
82
Gamma
- Computed from 2 quantities: # of pairs that have the same ranking on the 2 variables and # of pairs that have opposite ranking on same variable
83
Pearson product moment correlation
- Used for interval and ratio
| - guessing the value of 1 variable by knowing the other
84
Levels of significance
- probability of the measured associations being due only to sampling error
85
Chi square test
- Predict the joint distribution that would be expected if there were no relationship between the 2 variables
86
Statistically discernible difference
- considered statistically significant if found in a random sample
87
Hawthorne effect
- Individuals modify an aspect of their behavior in response to theis awareness of being observed
Crime 1208
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