SIJ2012 Nutritional Biochemistry > Topic 3 > Flashcards

Topic 3 Flashcards

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1
Q

Chemical Composition of Carbohydrates (CHO)

A

Made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms[cite: 897, 898].

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2
Q

[cite_start]”Major Role of CHO”

A

To provide energy[cite: 900].

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3
Q

[cite_start]”Energy provided by Digestible CHO”

A

4 kcal/g[cite: 901].

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4
Q

[cite_start]”Brain’s Essential Energy Source”

A

Glucose provides nearly all the energy the brain uses daily[cite: 902].

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5
Q

[cite_start]”Monosaccharides (Simple Sugars)”

A

Single sugar units (most are hexoses)[cite: 905].

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6
Q

[cite_start]”Glucose (Monosaccharide)”

A

Essential energy source, commonly known as blood sugar or dextrose[cite: 906].

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7
Q

[cite_start]”Fructose (Monosaccharide)”

A

The sweetest sugar, found naturally in honey and fruits, and added to many foods[cite: 907].

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8
Q

[cite_start]”Galactose (Monosaccharide)”

A

Rarely occurs naturally as a single sugar[cite: 908].

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9
Q

[cite_start]”Disaccharides (Simple Sugars)”

A

Pairs of monosaccharides, one of which is always glucose[cite: 937].

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10
Q

[cite_start]”Condensation Reaction”

A

Chemical reaction that links monosaccharides together to form a disaccharide, releasing water ($H_2O$)[cite: 937, 980].

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11
Q

[cite_start]”Hydrolysis Reaction”

A

Chemical reaction that splits a disaccharide molecule into two monosaccharides, consuming water ($H_2O$), commonly occurring during digestion[cite: 938].

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12
Q

[cite_start]”Maltose Composition”

A

Two glucose units[cite: 938].

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13
Q

[cite_start]”Maltose Source”

A

Produced during the germination of seeds and fermentation[cite: 939].

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14
Q

[cite_start]”Sucrose Composition”

A

Fructose and glucose combined[cite: 940].

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15
Q

[cite_start]”Sucrose Source”

A

Refined from sugarcane and sugar beets, tastes sweet, and is readily available[cite: 940].

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16
Q

[cite_start]”Lactose Composition”

A

Galactose and glucose combined[cite: 941].

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17
Q

[cite_start]”Lactose Source”

A

Found in milk and milk products[cite: 941].

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18
Q

[cite_start]”Complex Carbohydrates (Polysaccharides)”

A

Few (oligosaccharides) or many (polysaccharides) glucose units bound/linked together in straight or branched chains[cite: 992].

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19
Q

Glycogen (Polysaccharide)

A

Storage form of glucose in the body. Provides a rapid release of energy when needed. [cite_start]Highly branched chains[cite: 995, 996, 1009].

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20
Q

Starches (Polysaccharide)

A

Storage form of glucose in plants. Found in grains, potatoes, and legumes. [cite_start]Can be branched (amylopectin) or unbranched (amylose)[cite: 998, 999, 1017].

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21
Q

[cite_start]”Dietary Fibers (Complex CHO)”

A

Provide structure in plants and cannot be broken down by human enzymes[cite: 1030, 1031].

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22
Q

[cite_start]”Soluble Fibers (Characteristics)”

A

Viscous and can be digested by intestinal bacteria (fermentable)[cite: 1031].

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23
Q

[cite_start]”Soluble Fibers (Sources)”

A

Whole-grain products (barley, oats), fruits (apples, citrus), legumes, seeds, and vegetables[cite: 1032, 1054].

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24
Q

[cite_start]”Soluble Fibers (Health Benefits)”

A

Lower blood cholesterol (by binding bile), slow glucose absorption, lower risk of heart disease, lower risk of diabetes[cite: 1054].

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25
[cite_start]"Insoluble Fibers (Characteristics)"
Non-viscous and are not digested by intestinal bacteria (less fermentable)[cite: 1033, 1054].
26
[cite_start]"Insoluble Fibers (Sources)"
Wheat bran, vegetables (cabbage, carrots), whole grains, brown rice, legumes[cite: 1034, 1054].
27
[cite_start]"Insoluble Fibers (Health Benefits)"
Increase fecal weight and speed passage, provide bulk/fullness, alleviate constipation, lower risks of diverticulosis, hemorrhoids, and appendicitis[cite: 1054].
28
[cite_start]"Functional Fibers"
Health-benefiting fibers that are added to foods or supplements[cite: 1044].
29
[cite_start]"Total Fiber"
Considers both dietary and functional fibers[cite: 1045].
30
Resistant Starches
Escape digestion in the small intestine and ferment in the large intestine, feeding 'good' gut bacteria. [cite_start]Found in legumes, raw potatoes, and unripe bananas[cite: 1046, 1047].
31
[cite_start]"Phytic Acid (Phytate)"
A compound closely associated with fiber (in seeds, nuts, whole grains) that binds some minerals[cite: 1073, 1074].
32
[cite_start]"Anti-Nutrient Effect of Phytic Acid"
Prevents the absorption of minerals like iron, zinc, and calcium[cite: 1076].
33
[cite_start]"Methods to Reduce Phytic Acid"
Soaking, sprouting, and fermentation[cite: 1078, 1079, 1080].
34
[cite_start]"CHO Digestion: Mouth"
Salivary enzyme **amylase** begins to hydrolyze starch into short polysaccharides and maltose[cite: 1084, 1092, 1094].
35
CHO Digestion: Stomach
Acid continues to hydrolyze starch; however, stomach acid **inactivates salivary enzymes**, halting starch digestion. [cite_start]Fiber delays gastric emptying[cite: 1085, 1097, 1139].
36
[cite_start]"CHO Digestion: Small Intestine (Starch)"
**Pancreatic amylase** hydrolyzes starches to disaccharides and monosaccharides[cite: 1086, 1098, 1101].
37
[cite_start]"CHO Digestion: Small Intestine (Disaccharides)"
**Disaccharidase enzymes** on the surface of the intestinal cells hydrolyze disaccharides into monosaccharides (Maltase $\rightarrow$ 2 Glucose; Sucrase $\rightarrow$ Glucose+Fructose; Lactase $\rightarrow$ Glucose+Galactose)[cite: 1110, 1116].
38
[cite_start]"CHO Digestion: Large Intestine (Fiber)"
Fibers remain, attract water (soften stools), and are partly digested by **bacterial enzymes** (fermentation), yielding short-chain fatty acids and gas[cite: 1087, 1145, 1149, 1152].
39
[cite_start]"CHO Absorption: Primary Site"
Primarily takes place in the **small intestine**[cite: 1157].
40
[cite_start]"Absorption Mechanism: Glucose and Galactose"
Absorbed by **active transport**[cite: 1158].
41
[cite_start]"Absorption Mechanism: Fructose"
Absorbed by **facilitated diffusion**[cite: 1159].
42
[cite_start]"Monosaccharide Transport"
Monosaccharides enter the capillaries of the intestinal villi and travel to the **liver** via the portal vein[cite: 1160, 1163].
43
[cite_start]"Monosaccharide Conversion in Liver"
In the liver, galactose and fructose are converted to **glucose**[cite: 1164].
44
[cite_start]"Lactose Intolerance (Cause)"
Lactase deficiency, which can be due to a natural decrease with aging or damaged intestinal villi[cite: 1172].
45
[cite_start]"Lactose Intolerance (Symptoms)"
Bloating, abdominal discomfort, and diarrhea[cite: 1171].
46
[cite_start]"Lactose Intolerance (Dietary Changes)"
Gradually increase consumption, mix dairy with other foods, spread intake throughout the day, use fermented products (yogurt, kefir)[cite: 1174, 1175, 1177].
47
[cite_start]"Glucose Storage (Glycogen)"
The body stores glucose as **glycogen** in liver and muscle cells[cite: 1180, 1214].
48
Glucose Production from Protein
If glycogen stores are depleted, the body makes glucose from protein. [cite_start]This conversion is called **Gluconeogenesis**[cite: 1182].
49
[cite_start]"Glucose Conversion to Fat"
The body can convert excess glucose to **body fat** when carbohydrates are consumed excessively[cite: 1183, 1215].
50
[cite_start]"Low Blood Glucose (Symptom)"
May cause dizziness and weakness[cite: 1187].
51
[cite_start]"High Blood Glucose (Symptom)"
May cause fatigue[cite: 1188].
52
[cite_start]"Insulin (Hormone Role)"
Moves glucose into the cells (stimulates uptake) and helps to **lower** blood sugar levels[cite: 1193, 1204, 1214].
53
[cite_start]"Glucagon (Hormone Role)"
Brings glucose out of storage (stimulates liver to break down glycogen) and **raises** blood sugar levels[cite: 1193, 1221, 1222].
54
[cite_start]"Epinephrine (Hormone Role)"
Acts quickly to bring glucose out of storage during times of stress[cite: 1194, 1228].
55
[cite_start]"Type 1 Diabetes"
The less common type where **no insulin** is produced by the body[cite: 1233].
56
[cite_start]"Type 2 Diabetes"
The more common type where **fat cells resist insulin**[cite: 1234].
57
[cite_start]"Prediabetes"
Blood glucose that is higher than normal but below the diagnosis of diabetes[cite: 1235].
58
[cite_start]"Hypoglycemia"
Low blood glucose, often controlled by dietary changes[cite: 1236].
59
[cite_start]"Glycemic Response"
How quickly the blood glucose rises and elicits an insulin response[cite: 1240].
60
[cite_start]"Glycemic Index (GI)"
Classifies foods according to their potential for raising blood glucose[cite: 1242].
61
[cite_start]"Glycemic Load (GL)"
Refers to a food's glycemic index and the **amount of carbohydrate** the food contains[cite: 1243].
62
[cite_start]"Sugar and Health (Dental)"
Sugar poses no major health problem except **dental caries** (cavities)[cite: 1273]. [cite_start]Caused by bacteria in plaque and the length of time sugars contact teeth[cite: 1283].
63
[cite_start]"Sugar and Health (Obesity/Nutrients)"
Excessive intakes may **displace nutrients** and contribute to **obesity**[cite: 1274, 1281].
64
[cite_start]"Controversy: Sugar and Misbehavior"
There is **no scientific evidence** that sugar causes misbehavior in children or criminal behavior in adults[cite: 1289].
65
[cite_start]"DRI Recommendation for Added Sugars"
Should contribute **no more than 25%** of a day's total energy intake[cite: 1295].
66
[cite_start]"Health Benefits of Starch and Fiber (Cardiovascular)"
May provide protection from heart disease and stroke; soluble fibers bind with bile to **lower blood cholesterol**[cite: 1299, 1300].
67
[cite_start]"Health Benefits of Starch and Fiber (Diabetes)"
Reduce the risk of type 2 diabetes by **decreasing glucose absorption**[cite: 1302].
68
[cite_start]"Health Benefits of Starch and Fiber (GI Tract)"
Enhance the health of the GI tract (e.g., promote bowel regularity, protect against colon cancer)[cite: 1303, 1304].
69
[cite_start]"Harmful Effects of Excessive Fiber"
Displaces energy/nutrient-dense foods, causes abdominal discomfort/distention, and may interfere with nutrient absorption[cite: 1307, 1308, 1309].
70
[cite_start]"Artificial Sweeteners (Nonnutritive Sweeteners)"
Provide **no energy**[cite: 1334].
71
Saccharin (Artificial Sweetener)
Rapidly excreted in the urine, does not accumulate in the body. [cite_start]Has been removed from the list of cancer-causing substances[cite: 1337, 1338, 1339].
72
Aspartame (Artificial Sweetener)
General purpose sweetener. [cite_start]Products must carry a warning about **phenylalanine** for those with **PKU (phenylketonuria)**[cite: 1341, 1342].
73
[cite_start]"Sucralose (Artificial Sweetener)"
Made from sugar, passes through the digestive tract[cite: 1349, 1350].
74
Sugar Replacers (Nutritive Sweeteners)
Also called **sugar alcohols** and **polyols** (e.g., Sorbitol, Mannitol, Xylitol). [cite_start]Provide energy[cite: 1356].
75
Sugar Replacers (Mechanism/Side Effect)
Absorbed more slowly and metabolized differently (low glycemic response). [cite_start]Side effects include **GI discomfort**[cite: 1357, 1358].
76
[cite_start]"Sugarless/Sugar-Free Claim"
Products containing **less than 0.5 g of sugar per serving**[cite: 1394].
SIJ2012 Nutritional Biochemistry
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