Unit 0 - Science Practices

Question 1

Why is psychology a scientific study?

Answer 1

• Uses empirical data to test hypotheses
• Describes, predicts, and explains behavior and mental processes
• Systematic collection and observation of data

Question 2

Define:

Overconfidence

Answer 2

The tendency to be more confident than correct.

Overconfidence while conducting research may lead to bias and invalid results.

Question 3

Fill in the blanks:

Experts who evaluate a study’s methods, theory, and accuracy are called ______ ______.

Answer 3

peer reviewers

This aids in keeping the reliability and validity of research at a high level.

Question 4

Fill in the blank:

A well-written hypothesis can be proven incorrect. This speaks to its ______.

Answer 4

falsifiability

This may be counter to intuition, but a good hypothesis cannot be proven right if it cannot be proven wrong.

Question 5

What is a representative sample?

Answer 5

A subgroup of the total population that fairly and accurately represents the key characteristics of that population.

Question 6

Fill in the blank:

A sample in which every person in the population has an equal chance of being selected is ______.

Answer 6

random

Random sampling is a must to avoid different types of sampling bias.

Question 7

Define:

Convenience Sampling

Answer 7

Collecting research from a group that is easily available.

The convenience of this sample leads to an unrepresentative sample of the entire population.

Question 8

Which type of bias occurs when participants answer survey questions in a manner they think will please the researcher?

Answer 8

Social Desirability Bias

Question 9

Fill in the blank:

When people don’t correctly remember their experiences, they may display ______-______ bias.

Answer 9

self-report

Question 10

Define:

Regression Toward the Mean

Answer 10

The tendency for extreme scores to fall back toward the average as more scores are obtained.

Question 11

Sometimes we believe we see correlations where none actually exist. What is the term for this phenomenon?

Answer 11

Illusory Correlation

A more common word for illusory correlation is superstition.

Question 12

Define:

Scientific Method

Answer 12

A systematic, objective approach used to investigate psychological phenomena.

It involves a structured process to gather, analyze, and interpret data to understand behaviors, thoughts, and emotions.

Question 13

Define:

Theory

(as it relates to research methods)

Answer 13

An organized explanation of observed phenomena.

Question 14

What is replication?

Answer 14

Obtaining similar results to a previous study using the same methods.

The more a study is replicated with similar results, the more reliable and valid are its findings.

Question 15

Define:

Hindsight Bias

Answer 15

The tendency of people to overestimate their ability to predict an event after it happened.

This is also sometimes called the “I Knew It All Along” phenomenon.

Question 16

Name the research method where a researcher manipulates one or more factors and studies the effects.

Answer 16

experiment

Experiments are the only research method that prove causality.

Question 17

Define:

Hypothesis

Answer 17

A prediction of how two or more factors are related.

The difference between a theory and hypothesis is that a hypothesis is written in a manner that is testable.

Question 18

What is the difference between an independent variable and a dependent variable in an experiment?

Answer 18

The factor being manipulated is the independent variable. The factor being measured is the dependent variable.

What changes between groups is the independent variable. The results (data) of those changes are the dependent variable.

Question 19

Identify the independent and dependent variables:

If students use Brainscape to study, rather than simple flashcards, then they will get higher test scores.

Answer 19

• independent: method of studying
• dependent: test score

Question 20

Define:

Population

(as it relates to research methods)

Answer 20

All the individuals to which the study applies.

Question 21

Define:

Sample

(as it relates to research methods)

Answer 21

A subset of individuals selected from the total population to represent that population.

Question 22

What size of sample should be used in research?

Answer 22

A large random sample is preferred as long as it is still representative of the total population.

If you don’t have a sample that accurately represents the total population, the resulting data will be invalid.

Question 23

Define:

Random Selection

as it relates to research methods

Answer 23

When every individual from a population has an equal chance of being chosen for the sample.

Question 24

Which individuals are in the experimental group?

Answer 24

Subjects who receive the treatment or manipulation of the independent variable.

Question 25

Which **individuals** are in the control group?

Answer 25

Subjects who **do not receive any treatment** or manipulation.

Question 26

# Fill in the blanks: Subjects who receive the treatment are part of the \_\_\_\_\_\_, while those who do not receive the treatment belong to the \_\_\_\_\_\_.

Answer 26

experimental group; control group

Question 27

What **process** is used to ensure there are no preexisting differences between the control group and the experimental group?

Answer 27

**Random assignment**, which fairly divides the sample participants into the two groups.

Question 28

# Define: Confounding Variable

Answer 28

Any **unrelated factor** that influences the outcome of research, creating a misleading and erroneous association. ## Footnote This is also sometimes called the third variable problem.

Question 29

# Define: Experimenter Bias

Answer 29

This occurs when a researcher's **expectations** or preferences about the results of the study **influence the experiment**.

Question 30

# Fill in the blank: The \_\_\_\_\_\_ effect occurs when participants experience experimental results based on expectations alone.

Answer 30

placebo

Question 31

What is used to specifically define variables in research or explain how a particular variable is being measured?

Answer 31

Researchers use **operational definitions** to precisely describe variables in relation to their study. ## Footnote For example, "effectiveness of studying" can be operationally defined with a test score. Good operational definitions also allow for more valid and reliable replication of a study.

Question 32

What is a **single-blind** procedure?

Answer 32

Research design in which the **subjects are unaware** if they are in the control or experimental group but the researcher working with the participants **is aware** of their group assignment. ## Footnote Single-blind procedures are susceptible to experimenter bias.

Question 33

What is a **double-blind** procedure?

Answer 33

Research design in which **neither the experimenter nor the subjects are aware** who is in the control or experimental group. ## Footnote Double-blind procedures are more reliable and valid than single-blind procedures because they greatly reduce the chances for implicit biases.

Question 34

List the **four** most common non-experimental methodologies.

Answer 34

1. Case study 2. Naturalistic observation 3. Meta-analysis 4. Correlational research

Question 35

# Define: Correlational Research

Answer 35

* Establishes a relationship between two variables. * Does not determine cause and effect. * Used to make predictions and generate future research.

Question 36

# Define: Naturalistic Observation | (as it relates to research methods)

Answer 36

Naturalistic observation allows for the **observation of real behaviors**, but researchers should never speculate on what caused those behaviors. ## Footnote The 'naturalistic' aspect of this type of research means the participants are unaware they are being watched. This ensures the researcher is observing their natural behaviors.

Question 37

What are **surveys**?

Answer 37

**Questionnaires and interviews** given to a large group of people about their thoughts or behavior. ## Footnote Surveys allow for the quick questioning of a large sample of a population. This leads to more reliable generalizations from survey findings.

Question 38

What is a **case study**?

Answer 38

* A detailed examination of one person or a small group. * Beneficial for understanding rare and complex phenomena in clinical research. ## Footnote Results should not be generalized to an entire population.

Question 39

# What are the strengths and weaknesses of this research method? experiments

Answer 39

Strengths: * determine a cause-and-effect relationship between variables * control over confounding variables Weaknesses: * it can be difficult to generalize from the lab to the real world * expensive * time-consuming

Question 40

# What are the strengths and weaknesses of this research method? correlational research

Answer 40

Strengths: * easy to administer surveys or tests * inexpensive * minimal time needed * substantial real-world generalizability Weaknesses: * no control over confounding variables * skewed or biased results * establishes a relationship, not causation

Question 41

# Fill in the blanks: \_\_\_\_\_\_ data includes numerical measurements and \_\_\_\_\_\_ data includes descriptive words.

Answer 41

Quantitative; qualitative ## Footnote An example of quantitative data is Likert-scale results. An example of qualitative data would be participant interview answers.

Question 42

What is a **histogram**?

Answer 42

A histogram is a bar graph representing a **frequency distribution**.

Question 43

# Fill in the blanks: The three measures of central tendency are \_\_\_\_\_\_, \_\_\_\_\_\_, and \_\_\_\_\_\_.

Answer 43

mean, median, mode ## Footnote They're called measures of central tendency because they identify a center or typical value in a data set; summarizing a whole group of numbers with a single figure.

Question 44

What is the term for the **most frequently occurring score** in a set of data?

Answer 44

Mode

Question 45

# Define: Median | (in terms of central tendency)

Answer 45

The **middle score** when the data is ordered by size.

Question 46

# Fill in the blank: The arithmetic average in a set of scores is called the \_\_\_\_\_\_.

Answer 46

mean

Question 47

Which measure of central tendency is the **most** representative? The **least** representative?

Answer 47

* Mean is usually **most representative**, unless there are extreme outliers that pull the mean in a particular direction. * Median is **less sensitive** to outliers, but is a weak statistic. * Mode is the **least representative**.

Question 48

# Define: Normal Distribution

Answer 48

**Bell-shaped, symmetric curve** that represents data about many human characteristics throughout the population.

Question 49

# Fill in the blank: When most of the scores are compacted on one side of the bell curve, the distribution is said to be \_\_\_\_\_\_.

Answer 49

skewed ## Footnote Positively skewed distributions include a lot of small values and negatively skewed distributions include a lot of large values.

Question 50

# Fill in the blank: Measures of \_\_\_\_\_\_ are important because they display the diversity in a set of data.

Answer 50

variation

Question 51

List **two** measures of variation.

Answer 51

1. range 2. standard deviation

Question 52

# Define: Range | (in terms of measures of variation)

Answer 52

Difference between the **largest** score and the **smallest** score.

Question 53

What does **standard deviation** measure?

Answer 53

How much scores vary from the **mean**. ## Footnote A small standard deviation indicates most scores group around the mean. A large standard deviation indicates more varied scores.

Question 54

# Define: Percentile Rank

Answer 54

**Percentage of scores** at or below a particular score between 1 and 99. ## Footnote Example: If you are in the 70th percentile, 70% of the scores are the same as or below yours.

Question 55

# Define: Correlation Coefficient

Answer 55

* Statistical linear measure of the relationship between two sets of data * Ranges from -1 to +1 * Helps to make predictions about variables

Question 56

# Name the correlation coefficient for each and describe the relationship: 1. perfect positive correlation 2. no relationship 3. perfect negative correlation

Answer 56

1. r = +1 **direct relationship:** as one variable increases or decreases, the other does the same 2. r = 0 **no relationship** 3. r = -1 **inverse relationship:** as one variable increases or decreases, the other does the opposite

Question 57

What **type of graph** shows the strength and direction of correlations?

Answer 57

scatterplot

Question 58

When is a finding **statistically significant**?

Answer 58

When the probability that the finding is due to chance is **less than 1 in 20 (5%)**. ## Footnote Said another way, when you are 95% confident that the result was not due to chance.

Question 59

What method statistically **combines the results** of several research studies to reach a conclusion?

Answer 59

meta-analysis

Question 60

What **ethical guidelines** were established by the APA to protect human participants in research?

Answer 60

* Obtain participants' informed consent to take part (informed assent for minors). * Protect participants from unreasonable harm and discomfort. * Keep information about participants confidential. * Debrief participants after the study (explain findings and inform participants of deception).

Question 61

What are the **purposes** of an Institutional Review Board? | (IRB)

Answer 61

* Approve research being conducted at their particular institution. * Require participants to give informed consent after hearing the risks and procedures. * Require debriefing of participants afterward with results of research. * Ensure humane and ethical treatment of animal and human subjects.