1
Q
Define:
perception
A
The process by which our brain organizes and interprets sensation to understand the world.
Context, past experiences, and expectations all influence perception.
2
Q
Fill in the blanks:
The ability to focus consciously on only one stimulus is ______ ______.
A
selective attention
From a cognitive perspective, humans are unable to multitask and focus on two stimuli that require conscious attention simultaneously.
3
Q
What effect describes the human ability to attend to only one voice in a sea of many?
A
cocktail party effect
4
Q
Fill in the blank:
______ blindness occurs when one fails to see a visible object because their attention is elsewhere.
A
Inattentional
5
Q
Fill in the blank:
______ blindness occurs when one fails to notice an alteration to the environment.
A
Change
Change blindness is a form of inattentional blindness.
6
Q
What does Gestalt mean and what do Gestalt psychologists study?
A
- Gestalt means “form” or “whole”.
- Gestalt psychologists study the human tendency to integrate stimuli to form a meaningful whole.
7
Q
Define:
perceptual set
A
A tendency to perceive stimuli in a certain manner that impacts what we hear, taste, feel, and see.
Seeing is believing and, according to perceptual sets, believing is seeing.
8
Q
Explain the Gestalt rule of perception:
proximity
A
Items close together are easy to perceive as being part of the same group.
9
Q
Explain the Gestalt rule of perception:
similarity
A
Items that look alike are more likely to be seen as being in the same group.
10
Q
Explain the Gestalt rule of perception:
closure
A
Items that form a known image are easier to group together, even if there are some gaps within the image.
11
Q
What visual principle explains that humans organize information into central, focused objects and their less distinct surroundings?
A
Figure-ground
12
Q
Fill in the blanks:
The ability to see objects in three dimensions is called ______ ______.
A
depth perception
13
Q
What does the visual cliff experiment measure?
A
Depth perception in babies.
A baby is placed on one end of a table and tries to cross to the other side. However, the middle of the table appears hollow, like a cliff, and babies who refuse to cross the cliff can perceive depth.
14
Q
Fill in the blanks:
______ ______ are used to perceive depth and require use of both eyes, while ______ ______ are used to perceive depth and only require use of one eye.
A
Binocular cues; mononocular cues
15
Q
What are two binocular cues to help us perceive depth?
A
- Retinal disparity
- Convergence
Retinal disparity is the difference between the images projecting onto the retina.
Convergence is the merging of the retinal images by the brain.
16
Q
Why does retinal disparity tell us how far away an object is?
A
Our eyes are positioned apart from one another, so when one eye perceives something different about an object from the other eye, it tells us that the object must be close. If the object was far away, both eyes would perceive roughly the same visual stimuli.
17
Q
How does convergence signal how far away an object is?
A
The muscles that control the eyes send signals to the brain as they move, and the more the eye muscles converge (turn inward together), the closer an object must be.
18
Q
Describe:
linear perspective
A
Like in art class, linear perspective uses a point on the canvas for two lines to come together, representing depth and distance.
19
Q
Describe:
relative size
A
To represent depth and distance, objects in photos or drawings tend to be larger the closer they are to the foreground. If something is in the distance, it is usually represented as being quite small.
20
Q
Describe:
interposition
A
Interposition cues signal to a viewer that an object obscuring the view of another object is closer to the viewer.
21
Q
Describe:
texture gradient
A
Things in the distance are difficult to see clearly, and things close-up are more detailed, so fuzzy textures signal that an object or landscape is in the distance.
22
Q
Describe:
relative clarity
A
Objects that are closer are seen to have sharper edges and lines while objects further away are more hazy or blurry.
23
Q
Fill in the blanks:
The optical illusion where stationary objects appear to move is called ______ ______.
A
apparent movement
24
Q
What are concepts and prototypes?
A
Concepts are a mental grouping of similar objects, while prototypes are the most basic examples of concepts.
The brain developing concepts and prototypes of objects lessens the cognitive load needed to understand and perceive the environment.
25
To make sense of the world around us, the maturing brain develops schemas. What are **schemas**?
Concepts or frameworks the brain develops to **organize and interpret** information.
## Footnote
For example, through experiences, humans develop schemas for "what is a dog" and "what is a cat" to organize and differentiate between those species of animals.
26
# Fill in the blanks:
In developing schemas, the brain \_\_\_\_\_\_ new experiences and \_\_\_\_\_\_ schemas to make them more refined and precise.
assimilates; accommodates
27
In order for an idea to be creative, what **two** attributes must it have?
1. It must be novel or unique.
2. It must be useful or valuable.
28
# Fill in the blanks:
The ability to develop a single correct answer is \_\_\_\_\_\_ thinking, and the ability to develop all the correct answers is \_\_\_\_\_\_ thinking.
convergent; divergent
## Footnote
"State the main use for a brick" is convergent thinking.
"Tell me all the possible uses for a brick" is divergent thinking.
29
# Define:
functional fixedness
| (as it applies to finding creative solutions to a problem)
The **inability to think outside the box** to find a unique solution to a problem.
## Footnote
For example, the inability to realize that one could use a coffee mug as a pot for a plant.
30
# Fill in the blanks:
All of the cognitive skills and abilities allowing for planning, organizing, and implementing of goal-directed behaviors are called \_\_\_\_\_\_ \_\_\_\_\_\_.
executive functions
31
# Define:
algorithms and heuristics
| (as they pertain to problem solving)
* **Algorithms** are an **exhaustive problem-solving** search that go through every possible answer in order to find the correct one.
* **Heuristics** are **thinking strategies, or shortcuts**, that allow us to solve problems efficiently.
32
What are the **benefits and drawbacks** to using either an algorithm or heuristic to solve a problem?
Using an **algorithm** guarantees finding the correct answer, but can be very **time consuming**, while using a **heuristic** can help to solve a problem much faster, but can be **error-prone**.
33
# Fill in the blanks:
A cognitive bias where people tend to search for information that supports their thinking and ignore all information to the contrary is \_\_\_\_\_\_ \_\_\_\_\_\_.
confirmation bias
## Footnote
For example, watching news programs that only agree with our political leanings and ignoring all other sources of news is confirmation bias.
34
# Define:
mental set
| (as it pertains to solving problems)
A tendency to approach a problem from the mentality of a previous successful **attempt to solve a similar problem**.
## Footnote
For example, if someone uses a certain formula to successfully solve a math problem, the next time they have to solve a similar problem, they will probably use the same formula.
35
# Compare and contrast:
representativeness and availability heuristic
* Both influence how someone **interprets** their surroundings.
* Representativeness heuristic involves judging the likelihood of an event based on how well it represents **preconceived perceptions**.
* Availability heuristic involves judging the likelihood of events based on how **readily available** they are in memory.
## Footnote
* Representativeness heuristic can lead to judging others, prejudice, and discrimination.
* Availability heuristic can lead to assuming events that are easy to recall from memory are more common.
36
# Fill in the blank:
The \_\_\_\_\_\_ fallacy occurs when one believes that a random event is more or less likely to happen based on the frequency of that random event happening in the past.
gambler's
## Footnote
For example, someone witnesses three coin flips resulting in heads-heads-heads might display the gambler's fallacy by erroneously believing the next flip is more likely to be tails.
37
# Fill in the blanks:
The \_\_\_\_\_\_-\_\_\_\_\_\_ fallacy is displayed when someone stays with an original plan or idea even when switching to another plan or idea will save time and effort.
sunk-cost
38
# Define:
framing
| (as it applies to influencing decisions and judgement)
**The way a problem or issue is posed**. This can significantly influence how someone approaches and solves a problem.
## Footnote
Asking "how fast was the car going when it smashed into the other car?" will probably produce different answers than "how fast was the car going when it bumped into the other car?"
39
What is **memory**?
Any learning that has **occurred in the past** that persists over time.
40
# Contrast:
recall and recognition memory retention
* **Recall** memory retention usually takes **more effort** as one must search memory and retrieve with no help.
* **Recognition** memory retention relies on an **external cue** to assist with the retrieval of a memory.
## Footnote
An example of recall memory retention is answering short-answer questions with no assistance.
An example of recognition memory retention is answering a multiple-choice question.
41
# Fill in the blank:
\_\_\_\_\_\_ is the process of getting information into memory.
Encoding
42
# Fill in the blank:
\_\_\_\_\_\_ is the process of retaining memories over time.
Storage
43
# Fill in the blank:
\_\_\_\_\_\_ is the process of getting the memories out of storage for use.
Retrieval
44
The multi-store model of memory proposes there are three storehouses of memory. List those **storehouses**.
1. Sensory memory
2. Short-term memory
3. Long-term memory
## Footnote
This theory of memory processing was proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrin in 1968.
45
# Describe:
sensory memory
| (as it pertains to memory processing)
The fleeting storehouse of **initial sensory stimuli** into memory.
## Footnote
Information is stored in sensory memory from only a fraction of a second up to a few seconds.
46
# Describe:
short-term memory
| (as it pertains to memory processing)
The storehouse of memory for **conscious thoughts** or for only a few items.
## Footnote
Short-term memory is constrained by both the amount of information it can hold at any one time and by how long it can retain that information (15-30 seconds).
47
# Describe:
long-term memory
| (as it pertains to memory processing)
The storehouse of memory that is **limitless** and relatively **permanent**.
48
# Fill in the blank:
\_\_\_\_\_\_ memory is like a "scratch pad" where short-term and long-term memory combines.
Working
## Footnote
The working memory model proposes that this stage is where information is held in the conscious mind for use.
49
# List and describe:
**two** types of rehearsal of memory
1. **Maintenance rehearsal** is simple rehearsal of information over and over.
2. **Elaborative rehearsal** is creating meaningful connections between new information to already existing information in memory.
## Footnote
Simply repeating a phone number several times is maintenance rehearsal.
Realizing where a phone number's area code is geographically is elaborative rehearsal.
Both types of rehearsal improve memory retention, but elaborative rehearsal typically leads to more permanent storage of memories.
50
# Describe:
the central executive
| (as it pertains to the working memory model)
It coordinates **focus and attention** for important and necessary stimuli.
51
# Describe:
phonological loop
| (as it pertains to the working memory model)
Holds **auditory stimuli** in short-term memory.
52
# Describe:
the visuospatial sketchpad
| (as it pertains to the working memory model)
Holds **visual and spatial** information in short-term memory.
53
# Fill in the blanks:
A biological process describing the strengthening of neural connections when memories are retrieved is called \_\_\_\_\_\_-\_\_\_\_\_\_ \_\_\_\_\_\_.
long-term potentiation
## Footnote
Long-term potentiation explains biologically how information retrieved often is more efficiently and effectively retrieved when needed.
54
**Differentiate** between explicit memories and implicit memories.
**Explicit memories** are facts and experiences that we can know and declare.
**Implicit memories** are learned skills and associations that are independent of conscious recollection.
## Footnote
Remembering that Paris is the capital of France is an explicit memory.
Riding a bike is an example of an implicit memory.
55
# True or False:
Explicit memories are remembered automatically and without conscious awareness.
False
## Footnote
Explicit memories require effortful processing to be remembered.
56
# Fill in the blank:
Incidental and/or well-learned information is processed \_\_\_\_\_\_.
automatically
## Footnote
Humans automatically process chronological, spatial, and frequency information.
57
# Fill in the blank:
Memories for "how to" perform a task that is remembered with very little to no conscious effort are called \_\_\_\_\_\_ memories.
procedural
## Footnote
* How to make a sandwich and how to tie one's shoes are examples of procedural memories.
* Procedural memories are a type of implicit memories.
58
# Fill in the blank:
A fleeting sensory memory of visual stimuli is called \_\_\_\_\_\_ memory.
iconic
59
# Fill in the blank:
A fleeting sensory memory of auditory stimuli is called \_\_\_\_\_\_ memory.
echoic
60
# Define:
chunking
| (as it pertains to effortful processing strategies)
The mental **organizing** of similar information into **small, manageable units** to aid in memory processing.
## Footnote
Instead of attempting to remember all ten digits of a phone number with no breaks (5557239871), they are broken down into more easily remembered chunks (555-723-9871).
61
# Fill in the blank:
A memory aid that helps with effortful processing by using vivid imagery and organizational devices is \_\_\_\_\_\_.
mnemonics
## Footnote
The method of loci is an example of mnemonic usage. This involves associating to be remembered information with a specific, familiar place.
62
Organizing information into a few broad categories and then **dividing** and subdividing that information into **narrower concepts** is making use of what effortful **processing strategy**?
Hierarchies
63
# True or False:
Information is retained better when encoding opportunities (studying) is distributed over time.
True
## Footnote
This is called the spacing effect. Spacing out practice consistently yields better results when compared to massed practice (cramming).
64
# Fill in the blank:
The enhanced memory of information after retrieving memories, rather than simply after rereading information is called the \_\_\_\_\_\_ effect.
testing
## Footnote
Over a century of research indicates that retrieval is superior to restudy for retention of information.
65
# Define:
shallow and deep processing
| (as it applies to levels of processing)
* Encoding information on a **basic level** elicits **shallow** processing.
* Encoding information on a more **meaningful level** elicits **deep** processing.
## Footnote
Remembering the letters in a word is an example of shallow processing.
Being able to use the word correctly in a sentence is an example of deep processing.
66
# Fill in the blank:
Memory of experienced events in one's life is called \_\_\_\_\_\_ memory.
episodic
## Footnote
Remembering a vacation and what was eaten for breakfast are examples of episodic memories.
67
What are **semantic memories**?
They are explicit memories of **facts and general knowledge**.
68
# True or False:
Most people have memories of their first birthday party.
False
## Footnote
Infantile amnesia demonstrates a biological limitation of memory. The structures of the brain needed for the processing of memories long-term do not appropriately develop until the ages of three or four.
69
# Fill in the blanks:
A memory disorder that results in the slow regression of memory, thinking, and the ability to complete simple tasks is \_\_\_\_\_\_ \_\_\_\_\_\_.
Alzheimer's disease
## Footnote
It is a form of dementia.
70
# Fill in the blanks:
Helpful hints that assist with retrieval of specific memories are called \_\_\_\_\_\_ \_\_\_\_\_\_.
retrieval cues
## Footnote
If someone cannot remember the capital of Alabama and then they are given the hint that it begins with the letter M and that allows them to remember that the answer is Montgomery, that hint serves as a retrieval cue.
71
# Define:
prospective memory
Memories of our intended **future actions**.
## Footnote
Remembering to stop at the grocery store on the way home from work is an example of a prospective memory.
72
Name the **term** that represents the "wakening of associations" to retrieve memories.
Priming
73
# Fill in the blanks:
\_\_\_\_\_\_-\_\_\_\_\_\_ memories rely on cues from the environment where the initial memory was formed to elicit retrieval.
Context-dependent
## Footnote
People are more likely to retrieve memories of moments that occurred in their car when they are in their car.
74
# Fill in the blanks:
\_\_\_\_\_\_-\_\_\_\_\_\_ memories are more easily remembered when one is in the state of mind from which they initially made the memory.
State-dependent
75
# Fill in the blanks:
\_\_\_\_\_\_ \_\_\_\_\_\_ memories are more easily remembered when one is back in that emotional mindset from which they initially made the memory.
Mood congruent
## Footnote
It is easier to remember happy memories when one is in a good mood.
It is easier to remember sad memories when one is in a bad mood.
76
# Define and describe:
* the primacy effect
* the recency effect
* the serial position effect
| (as it pertains to memory retrieval)
If given a long list of words to remember, you will more easily be able to retrieve the words at the **beginning** (the primacy effect) and the words at the **end** (the recency effect), and forget the words in the middle.
This **combined pattern**—remembering the beginning and end of the list while forgetting the middle—is called the serial position effect.
77
What **term** signifies an awareness and understanding of one's own thought process or "thinking about thinking?"
Metacognition
## Footnote
Examples include planning out a study session, considering the types of questions to answer, and monitoring one's understanding and comprehension of a subject.
78
On very rare occasions, people have the ability to recall an extremely **large amount of personal experiences** in vivid details. What **condition** is this?
Superior autobiographical memory
## Footnote
Around 60 people have been identified with this condition in the world.
79
# Fill in the blanks:
An inability to form new memories is \_\_\_\_\_\_ amnesia and an inability to remember information from the past is \_\_\_\_\_\_ amnesia.
anterograde; retrograde
80
# Define:
encoding failure
| (as it pertains to forgetting)
Occurs when one **senses stimuli but fails** to give it focused attention.
## Footnote
This occurs constantly. Humans are inundated 24 hours a day with stimuli, but only have the ability to possibly remember what they choose to focus their attention on. Everything else is forgotten in seconds.
81
# Explain:
the forgetting curve
In 1885, Hermann Ebbinghaus found that people tasked with learning nonsense syllables (HPE or CQA) **forgot a lot over the course of a few days**, but then the forgetting leveled off.
## Footnote
The course of forgetting is initially very rapid, then levels off with time.
82
What **phenomenon** occurs when retrieval of information feels just out of reach?
Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon
## Footnote
This is a form of retrieval failure. They know they know the answer, they just need a small hint to elicit recall of the information.
83
# Fill in the blank:
\_\_\_\_\_\_ interference occurs when prior knowledge disrupts the recall of new information.
Proactive
## Footnote
If someone moves to a new house and they can still remember their old address, but cannot recall their new address.
84
# Fill in the blank:
\_\_\_\_\_\_ interference occurs when new knowledge disrupts the recall of old information.
Retroactive
## Footnote
If someone can recall their locker combination for this school year, but cannot remember their locker combination from past school years.
85
Psychoactive theorists believe that memories can be forgotten as a defense mechanism to defend our ego. What **defense mechanism** is this?
Repression
86
# Describe:
reconstruction
| (as it pertains to memory construction inaccuracy)
Memories are constantly **revised and changed** as they are retrieved. Every time they are reconstructed they change a little and that new, slightly modified memory is remembered in the place of the original memory.
## Footnote
"Your memory is only as good as your last memory. The fewer times you use it, the more pristine it is." - Joseph LeDoux
87
# Describe:
misinformation effect
| (as it pertains to memory construction inaccuracy)
The **changing of a memory** based on **misleading** information perceived after the event.
## Footnote
Eye witnesses to crimes are especially susceptible to the misinformation effect. If someone suggests the red car was speeding before the crash, other witnesses may refine their memory of the event to include a speeding red car.
88
# Describe:
source amnesia
| (as it pertains to memory construction inaccuracy)
A **faulty memory** for how, when, and where a memory was created.
## Footnote
Examples of this include forgetting where someone heard a rumor or misremembering a dream as a real event.
89
# Describe:
imagination inflation
| (as it pertains to memory construction inaccuracy)
By **repeatedly thinking** about an event that **didn't happen**, people may conflate that event as actually happening to them.
## Footnote
This may lead to false confessions of a crime if someone repeatedly imagines committing the crime so much that their brain believes they actually did the act.
90
# Fill in the blank:
The ability to learn from experience and use knowledge to solve problems is \_\_\_\_\_\_.
intelligence
91
# Define:
general intelligence
| (as it pertains to theories of intelligence)
The belief that there is a broad **underlying intelligence** that is present in the ability to complete all tasks successfully.
## Footnote
If someone is good at one task, they will probably be good at other, similar tasks.
92
# Fill in the blanks:
\_\_\_\_\_\_ intelligence is the ability to reason quickly and abstractly, while \_\_\_\_\_\_ intelligence is the accumulation of knowledge and facts over time.
Fluid; crystallized
## Footnote
Generally, fluid intelligence decreases with age and crystallized intelligence increases with age.
93
# Fill in the blanks:
Tests designed to assess what you have learned are \_\_\_\_\_\_ tests, while tests designed to predict what you will be able to learn are \_\_\_\_\_\_ tests.
achievement; aptitude
## Footnote
The AP exam is an example of an achievement test.
The ASVAB test is an aptitude test because it measures the potential for military career success.
94
# Define:
mental age
| (as it pertains to intelligence)
A **measure of intelligence test performance** that corresponds with one's ability to solve problems like someone of a certain **chronological age**.
## Footnote
Someone may be chronologically 12 years old, but an intelligence test shows they think like a 14 year old (mental age of 14).
95
# Define:
chronological age
The measured **amount of time** someone has been **alive**.
96
# Identify:
the formula for Intelligence Quotient (IQ).
IQ = (mental age ÷ chronological age) × 100
## Footnote
If someone's chronological age was 10 and mental age was 12, their IQ would be 120.
12/10 = 1.2
1.2 x 100 = 120
97
What does it mean if a test is **standardized**?
Standardization means there are **uniform testing procedures** that apply to all test takers. This allows for more accurate comparing of test scores across a population.
## Footnote
Examples of standardization are:
* the same type of questions
* the same number of questions
* the same amount of time to complete the test
98
# Fill in the blank:
The \_\_\_\_\_\_ effect describes the rise in IQ scores across generations.
Flynn
## Footnote
Dr. James Flynn showed that the average IQ score has risen, on average, three points per decade since the early 1900s.
99
# Contrast:
reliability and validity
| (as it pertains to accurate test results)
* **Reliability**: the extent to which a test **yields** consistent results
* **Validity**: the extent to which a test **measures or predicts** what it is intended to do.
## Footnote
A clock that is always five minutes fast is reliable, but not valid.
It is consistent, but it does not predict what it is supposed to predict.
100
# Define:
test-retest reliability
Test scores are **consistent on a given test** when the same participants are tested on two separate occasions.
101
# Define:
split-half reliability
There is consistency between scores on **one half** of the test and scores on the other half of the test.
102
# Define:
construct validity
The extent to which a test accurately measures a **theoretical concept**.
103
# Define:
predictive validity
A test's scores accurately predict a **future result**.
104
# Contrast:
fixed mindset and growth mindset
* **Fixed mindset**: the belief that intelligence and abilities are set and unchangeable
* **Growth mindset**: the belief that intelligence and abilities can change with effort.
## Footnote
People's beliefs about whether intelligence is set from birth (fixed mindset) or malleable and changeable due to experience (growth mindset) can impact motivation and achievement.
105
# Fill in the blanks:
A belief that one will be negatively judged based upon stereotypes they may represent is \_\_\_\_\_\_ \_\_\_\_\_\_.
stereotype threat
## Footnote
If someone worries their group will not perform on a certain test or task, self-doubts may hinder performance on those tasks or tests.
106
# Fill in the blanks:
\_\_\_\_\_\_ \_\_\_\_\_\_ is performance improvement experienced by members of a non-stigmatized group when they are aware of negative stereotypes of other groups.
Stereotype lift
## Footnote
This occurs due to social comparison and a boost in self-efficacy and confidence.
