1
Q
What is the definition of land cover?
A
‘The observed biophysical cover on the Earth’s surface.’
Includes vegetation, bare rock, soil, and human-made landscapes such as agriculture and urban areas.
2
Q
Name the natural causes that change land cover.
A
- Climate Change
- Geophysical changes
- Plant Succession
- Fires and pests
Each of these factors contributes to alterations in land cover over time.
3
Q
What is the Last Glacial Maximum?
A
The peak of the last glacial period, occurring between 17,000 and 21,000 years ago
During this time, global surface temperatures were approximately 6˚ cooler than today.
4
Q
True or false: Human activities have no impact on climate change.
A
FALSE
Human activities, such as burning fossil fuels, significantly influence climate change and the distribution of ice and snow cover.
5
Q
What are the geophysical changes that can affect land cover?
A
- Volcanic activity
- Earthquakes
- Landslides
These events can alter the shape and use of land significantly.
6
Q
What is plant succession?
A
The process where vegetation adapts to changing climate and ground conditions
Involves colonization of an area by pioneer plants followed by secondary species.
7
Q
What impact do fires have on land cover?
A
Fires can significantly alter land cover, with large areas being burnt
For example, in 2019-2020, 18 million hectares were affected.
8
Q
What role do pests play in changing land cover?
A
Pests can lead to soil erosion and loss of vegetation
Locust swarms can consume all leaf and grass vegetation where they settle.
9
Q
What is the impact of population dynamics on land cover?
A
Rapid population growth has led to significant pressure on land surfaces
Extensive areas have been cleared for housing and infrastructure.
10
Q
How has technology influenced land cover?
A
Technology has enabled rapid environmental changes through infrastructure projects
Examples include building dams and water diversion schemes.
11
Q
What role do government policies play in land cover change?
A
Government policies influence land cover through economic measures
This includes market prices for goods and tax determinations, such as selective logging.
12
Q
What was the spatial distribution of land cover during the last Glacial Maximum around 20,000 years ago?
A
The distribution of glaciers and ice sheets
This distribution changed over time, particularly during the Holocene Climatic Optimum around 8000 years ago.
13
Q
What is the current spatial distribution of glaciers and ice sheets?
A
Every continent has glaciers except for Australia
Regions close to Australia with observable glaciers include New Guinea and New Zealand.
14
Q
How many glaciers has the Randolph Glacier Inventory (RGI) identified globally?
A
217,175 glaciers covering 726,000 sq kms
This inventory provides a comprehensive count of glaciers worldwide.
15
Q
What percentage of the Earth’s surface is covered by ice in the Cryosphere?
A
About 20%
Ice in the Cryosphere falls into six main categories.
16
Q
List any two categories of ice in the Cryosphere.
A
- Sea ice
- Land covered by glaciers
Other categories include land covered by ice sheets, tundra covered by snow, land underlain by permafrost, and peri-glacial zones.
17
Q
Define a glacier.
A
A body of ice formed on land and in motion, confined by terrain
Glaciers are most commonly found in valleys.
18
Q
What are ice sheets?
A
Vast masses of unconfined ice, usually dome-shaped
Ice sheets bury landscapes.
19
Q
What is accumulation in relation to glaciers?
A
Where the ice and snow build-up
This process is crucial for glacier formation.
20
Q
What does glacier flow refer to?
A
Ice and snow flow downhill under its own weight
This movement is essential for the dynamics of glaciers.
21
Q
What is the terminus of a glacier?
A
The point where the ice has melted
This is a critical point for understanding glacier retreat.
22
Q
Define ablation.
A
The process of melting ice on a glacier
Ablation affects the overall mass balance of glaciers.
23
Q
What is glacier mass?
A
The balance between the ice gained and the ice lost
This balance determines the health and longevity of a glacier.
24
Q
Globally, how much did glaciers reduce between 1979 and 2016?
A
87,000 square kms
This reduction highlights the impact of climate change on glacial regions.
25
What are the **natural characteristics** of glaciers?
* Accumulations of snow compacted into ice
* Slowly flow downhill under their own weight
* Body of ice slowly flowing down a valley
* Vast masses of unconfined ice, usually dome-shaped
## Footnote
Glaciers and ice sheets are defined by their movement and structure.
26
What is the maximum flow speed of a glacier?
30m a day
## Footnote
Glacier flow speed can vary significantly, with some moving as slowly as 25cm a day.
27
How is the **mass balance** of a glacier calculated?
Snowfall (for the year) – Ice melt (for the year) = MASS BALANCE
## Footnote
A negative mass balance indicates that glaciers and ice sheets are losing more ice than they gain.
28
What is the **mass loss** of Greenland glaciers from 2006-2015?
278 Gt/year
## Footnote
This figure highlights the significant reduction in ice mass in Greenland.
29
What is the **Ablation Zone** of a glacier?
Where the glacier/ice sheet is melting
## Footnote
This zone is typically at lower altitudes and experiences greater melting in summer.
30
What does **Ablation** refer to in glaciology?
Erosion of a glacier, usually through melting
## Footnote
Ablation contributes to the overall mass loss of glaciers.
31
What is the **Snowline**?
The average lowest altitude at which snow stays on the ground during winter
## Footnote
The snowline varies with climate and altitude.
32
Where do glaciers and ice sheets occur on a global scale?
* Cold climates
* High latitudes
* Increasing altitudes with decreasing latitude
## Footnote
These conditions allow for long-term snowfall accumulation to exceed snow loss.
33
How many **ice sheets** are there in the world?
2
## Footnote
The Antarctic ice sheet and the Greenland ice sheet are the only two.
34
What are the **erosional landforms** created by glaciers?
* Deep U-shaped valleys
* Cirques
* Horns
* Aretes
## Footnote
These landforms result from the powerful scraping action of glaciers.
35
What are **moraines**?
Heaped sediment at the end (terminal) and sides (lateral) of a glacier
## Footnote
Moraines are significant features of glacial deposition.
36
What is a **terminal lake**?
A lake formed behind the terminal moraine
## Footnote
Terminal lakes are often a result of glacial retreat.
37
What causes **ice sheets** to flow outwards towards the ocean?
Gravity
## Footnote
Ice sheets often have glaciers at their margins.
38
Define **Ice Shelf**.
Ice sheet extends out from the land over the ocean as a floating thick layer of ice
## Footnote
Ice shelves are crucial for understanding glacial dynamics.
39
What effect do **warm ocean currents** have on ice shelves?
They can melt ice shelves underneath, breaking them up and allowing outlet glaciers to flow faster
## Footnote
This process contributes to glacial retreat.
40
What are **moulins**?
Meltwater tubes that go through the ice sheet to the bedrock below
## Footnote
They lubricate the bedrock, speeding up glacial flow.
41
What are **meltwater lakes**?
Lakes that develop on the surface of ice sheets and absorb more heat
## Footnote
They can influence the melting rate of the ice sheets.
42
Why is **Antarctica** classified as a desert?
It has low precipitation, leading to low accumulation
## Footnote
This classification affects its ice sheet dynamics.
43
What is the effect of **albedo** on glaciers?
Glaciers deflect up to 80% of solar radiation while absorbing the rest
## Footnote
When glaciers melt, the exposed surface absorbs more heat, reversing this effect.
44
What happens when a glacier melts completely regarding **albedo**?
80% of heat is absorbed and 20% is deflected
## Footnote
This leads to increased warming of the earth's surface.
45
What are **aerosols**?
Dust particles in the air that land on glaciers, making them dark and absorbing heat
## Footnote
Aerosols can accelerate glacial melting.
46
What is a consequence of the **retreat of glaciers**?
Reduction in ice cover and increase in exposed rock and depositional landscapes
## Footnote
This includes features like moraines and glacial till.
47
What happens to **depositional landforms** once exposed?
They might be colonized by vegetation (tundra) or human land uses (e.g., cropland)
## Footnote
This reflects changes in land cover due to glacial retreat.
48
What is a fact about the bulk of the **ice sheet**?
The bulk does not change land cover and is still ice
## Footnote
This highlights the stability of the ice sheet despite surface changes.
49
What trend has been observed regarding **meltwater lakes** on ice sheet surfaces?
Increasing number in the last ten years
## Footnote
This trend is significant for understanding climate change impacts.
50
What can **ice sheet margin retreat** leave behind?
Depositional landforms, sediment, and lakes
## Footnote
These features can reshape the landscape significantly.
51
What will happen to **coastal lowlands and low islands** due to rising sea levels?
They will become marine environments as low-lying areas are inundated
## Footnote
This is a direct consequence of melting glaciers and ice sheets.
52
What is the height of the ice at the **Ilulissat Glacier**?
About 3,000 feet
## Footnote
This includes 300-400 feet above water and the rest below water.
53
What are the two domes of ice in **Greenland's Ice Cap** separated by?
A dip running across Greenland
## Footnote
At its highest point, the Ice Cap is 3,200 metres above sea level.
54
What percentage of the **ice surface** in Greenland is located more than 2,000 metres above sea level?
65%
## Footnote
About a third of the ice lies below sea level.
55
What happens to Greenland if the ice melts?
It would become a ring-shaped country with a large lake in the middle
## Footnote
This is due to about a third of the ice lying below sea level.
56
What causes **fracturing** in the ice sheet as it flows over bedrock?
Stresses from ice flowing over bedrock
## Footnote
This leads to crevasses and eventually iceberg calving.
57
What is **cryoconite** and how does it affect ice melting in Greenland?
Airborne sediment that decreases albedo
## Footnote
This increases heat absorption and accelerates melting.
58
Name the three ways climate change can **accelerate the rate of melting** in Greenland.
* Surface melting due to warmer temperatures
* Moulin lakes lubricating glaciers
* Sea ice shelves melting from warmer oceans
## Footnote
These processes contribute to increased ice loss.
59
What is the role of **moulins** in the melting process?
They lubricate and accelerate the flow of glaciers to the coast
## Footnote
Moulins can form due to cryoconite.
60
What has been observed about the **melting season** in Greenland?
It is lasting longer and reaching higher elevations
## Footnote
Less snowfall has led to a net loss of surface ice.
61
What significant event occurred in **July 2015** regarding the Greenland ice sheet?
It lost over 0.6 metres of ice in crucial areas in less than 11 months
## Footnote
This highlights the rapid changes occurring in the ice sheet.
62
What has happened to the speeds of many of Greenland's **outlet glaciers** in recent decades?
They have increased dramatically
## Footnote
This is contributing to the overall loss of ice mass.
63
What does the **GRACE** satellite mission measure?
The Earth's gravity field
## Footnote
It helps derive monthly global models of the gravity field.
64
What is the **GDP** of Greenland?
$2.4bn
## Footnote
Denmark contributes two thirds of Greenland's budget revenue.
65
What percentage of Greenland is covered by an **ice cap**?
82%
## Footnote
The ice cap can be up to 4km thick in places.
66
What social problems do inhabitants of Greenland face?
* Unemployment
* Alcoholism
* HIV/AIDS
## Footnote
These issues are significant in the small population of 57,000.
67
What impact does the decline in ice cover on ice sheets have on the population?
It can affect economic and social well-being
## Footnote
Environmental changes also play a role.
68
What is the **impact of declining ice cover** on the population and environment?
* Affects economic and social well-being
* Impacts the environment
## Footnote
The decline in ice cover can lead to various consequences for both human populations and ecosystems.
69
What are the **positive environmental impacts** of warmer weather in Greenland?
* More greening of Greenland
* Longer grass growing season
* Boost in productivity for sheep farms
* Reintroduction of dairy cattle
* Increased local agriculture
## Footnote
Warmer temperatures may allow for farming similar to conditions 1000 years ago.
70
What are the **negative environmental impacts** of melting ice in Greenland?
* Release of impurities from melting ice
* Darker surface accelerates melting
* Negative effects on caribou and reindeer herding
* Release of methane from permafrost
* Freshwater dumping affects Gulf Stream flow
* Increased risk of overfishing
## Footnote
These impacts can create a feedback loop that exacerbates climate change.
71
What are the **economic positive impacts** of melting ice in Greenland?
* Greater access to minerals
* Boom in mineral resource exports
* Easier access to oil reserves
* Increased tourism opportunities
* Reduced dependency on Denmark
## Footnote
Mining and resource extraction may lead to significant economic growth.
72
What are the **negative economic impacts** of melting ice in Greenland?
* Greater environmental degradation
* Influx of migrant workers
* Risk of oil spills affecting wildlife
* High dependency on imports and fishing
## Footnote
These factors can undermine local economies and ecosystems.
73
What are the **positive social impacts** of mining in Greenland?
* Job creation
* Increased tourism opportunities
* Boost in construction industry
## Footnote
Mining can provide significant employment and economic benefits to local communities.
74
What are the **negative social impacts** of mining in Greenland?
* Lower life expectancy
* High poverty rates
* Unemployment for unskilled workers
* Reduced number of local guides
## Footnote
These social issues can be exacerbated by the influx of workers in the mining sector.
75
What technologies are used for **monitoring ice volumes and flow rates**?
* NASA satellite imagery
* GNSS (Global Navigation Satellite Systems)
* GRACE satellite data
* Aerial photography
* Scientific probes
* GIS (Geographic Information Systems)
* WGMS (World Glacier Monitoring Service)
* GLIMS (Global Land Ice Measurements from Space)
## Footnote
These technologies help in understanding the dynamics of ice sheet melting.
76
What was the **Kyoto Protocol** aimed at?
* Limiting greenhouse gas emissions by 5.2% from 1990 levels
## Footnote
The protocol was a response to concerns about climate change impacts and ran from 1997 to 2012.
77
What is the goal of the **Paris Agreement** established on November 4, 2016?
* Limit global warming to less than 2 degrees °C
* Achieve zero net anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions in the second half of the 21st century
## Footnote
The agreement includes a global stock-take every five years to update national goals.
78
True or false: The **Paris Agreement** requires countries to set mandatory targets for emission reduction.
FALSE
## Footnote
Each country sets voluntary targets, and there are no enforcement measures for non-compliance.
79
What are some **national responses** by the Greenland government to climate change?
* Public awareness campaigns
* Investment in renewable energy
* Establishment of a climate centre at a university
## Footnote
These initiatives aim to promote climate-friendly behavior and reduce emissions.
80
What local initiatives are being taken to promote **climate-friendly behavior**?
* Holistic sustainability vision by Qeqqata municipality
* Action Plan for Climate and Energy by Sermersooq municipality
* Adaptation of hunting and fishing activities
## Footnote
Local governments are working to incorporate climate perspectives into future initiatives.
81
What is an example of **local community action** in response to climate change?
* Residents of Niaqornat pooled savings to buy and operate a fish processing plant
## Footnote
This initiative was a response to decreased catch size due to changing climate conditions.
82
What natural process involves **plate tectonic movement** causing changes in ocean current patterns and atmospheric circulation?
Continental Drift
## Footnote
This process can lead to periods of high vulcanism and significant climate changes over millions of years.
83
What are the **Milankovitch cycles**?
* Regular variations in earth’s orbit
* Cause changes in solar heating
* Result in glacial and inter-glacial periods
## Footnote
Observed cycles of 26,000; 41,000; and 100,000 years.
84
What is the time scale of **ocean current changes** that cause regional climate changes?
5-20 year scale
## Footnote
The natural El Nino/La Nina cycle occurs every 5-7 years.
85
What does the **El Nino** phenomenon cause in Australia and Peru?
* Droughts in Australia
* Reduced snowfall and increased air temperature in Peru
## Footnote
This leads to glacial retreat and deflation.
86
How can **volcanic activity** affect global temperatures?
Ejects dust and gas that shade the earth’s surface, causing temporary cooling
## Footnote
Example: Mt Pinatubo in 1990 caused a -0.5°C change over 15 months.
87
What has caused an increase in global surface air temperature by **1.2°C** since the industrial revolution?
Human activity causing the enhanced greenhouse effect
## Footnote
This has led to rapid melting of glaciers and ice sheets (MGAIS).
88
What are the effects of **global warming** on glaciers and ice sheets?
* Reduction in accumulation zones
* Increase in ablation zones
* Increasing ocean temperatures
## Footnote
These factors contribute to faster glacier movement and mass loss.
89
What gases are increasing in the atmosphere due to human activity, contributing to the **enhanced anthropogenic greenhouse effect**?
* Carbon dioxide
* Methane
* Nitrous oxide
## Footnote
These gases trap more heat in the atmosphere.
90
How does **deforestation** contribute to global warming?
* Reduces carbon sequestration
* Releases CO2 into the atmosphere
## Footnote
Clearing and burning forests exacerbates climate change.
91
What is the impact of **land cover change** on heat absorption?
Reduces albedo, increasing heat absorption
## Footnote
Urban surfaces like concrete create heat islands.
92
What is **cryoconite**?
Dust or aerosol particles that land on glaciers and ice sheets
## Footnote
It can come from natural or human sources and speeds up melting.
93
What are the **natural sources** of cryoconite?
* Volcanic ash
* Natural erosion causing dust storms
## Footnote
These particles can be transported through the air and land on glaciers.
94
What are the **human sources** of cryoconite?
* Erosion from poor agricultural practices
* Soot from burning fossil fuels
## Footnote
These contribute to increased surface melting.
95
Define **spatial association**.
The similarity between two distributions (where things are found)
## Footnote
It can be described as strong, moderate, or weak.
96
What are the **positive impacts** of melting glaciers and ice sheets?
* Change in land cover to vegetation
* Increased opportunities for farming
* Opportunities for mining operations
* Increased river flows
## Footnote
These impacts can provide short-term benefits.
97
What are the **negative impacts** of melting glaciers and ice sheets?
* Reduced albedo, accelerating global warming
* Sea level rise affecting millions
* Environmental refugees due to flooding
## Footnote
The Greenland ice sheet could melt with a 2-3°C increase in temperature.
98
What could happen if the **Antarctic ice sheet** completely melts?
Sea levels could rise around 60 metres
## Footnote
This would inundate around 40% of the world’s population.
99
What are **glacial lake outburst floods**?
Flooding caused by proglacial lakes bursting
## Footnote
These floods can inundate valleys.
100
What is **accumulation** in the context of ice sheet processes?
Gain of ice (snowfall → compaction → ice)
## Footnote
Accumulation contributes to the overall mass balance of glaciers.
101
Define **ablation**.
Loss of ice (melting, calving, sublimation)
## Footnote
Ablation is a key factor in determining glacial mass balance.
102
What does **ice flow** refer to?
Movement of ice from interior → coast
## Footnote
Ice flow is essential for understanding glacier dynamics.
103
Name two **atmospheric drivers** contributing to Greenland's melting.
* Rising air temperatures
* Increased surface melt
## Footnote
These factors significantly influence the rate of ice loss.
104
What are two **oceanic drivers** of Greenland's ice melting?
* Warmer ocean currents
* Melting at glacier fronts
## Footnote
Oceanic conditions play a crucial role in glacier dynamics.
105
True or false: Melting in Greenland is solely due to **air temperature**.
FALSE
## Footnote
Melting also involves water temperature and oceanic influences.
106
What is the **albedo positive feedback loop**?
Reduced albedo (less reflection, more absorption)
## Footnote
This loop accelerates warming and ice melt.
107
What evidence indicates that **ice loss** in Greenland is accelerating?
* Ice loss accelerating since 2000
* Glacier retreat (Jakobshavn, Petermann)
* Large calving events
* Continuous mass loss since 2002
## Footnote
These observations highlight the urgency of climate change impacts.
108
In the context of Greenland, what are some **positive economic impacts** of melting ice?
* Increased access to natural resources (oil, gas, minerals)
* Growth in mining and exploration industries
* Improved fishing conditions
* Growth in tourism
## Footnote
These factors can enhance economic opportunities in the short term.
109
What are some **negative impacts** of melting ice in Greenland?
* Global sea level rise threatening coastal settlements
* Environmental degradation from mining and oil extraction
* Disruption of traditional lifestyles (fishing, hunting)
* Limited job opportunities for local communities due to foreign workers
## Footnote
These impacts highlight the long-term challenges posed by climate change.
110
What is the **overall assessment** of melting ice in Greenland?
Creates short-term economic opportunities, but long-term social and environmental impacts are largely negative
## Footnote
This assessment reflects the complexity of climate change effects.
Geography
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