Unit 2

Question 1

Major divisions of the CNS

Answer 1

Brain & the spinal cord

Question 2

Major divisions of the PNS

Answer 2

Autonomic nervous system and somatic

Question 3

Groups within the autonomic nervous

Answer 3

Sympathetic and parasympathetic

Question 4

Sympathetic nervous and nt?

Answer 4

Excites, high activity - increases heart rate, blood pressure, respiration (fight or flight)
It uses norepinephrine

Question 5

Parasympathetic and its nt?

Answer 5

Relaxes, nonemergency - decreases effects of sympathetic (rest and restore)
It uses acetylycholine

Question 6

Where do you find most of the grey matter in the
spinal cord? How does that compare to the brain’s grey matter versus white matter configuration?

Answer 6

In the center, it differs from the brain because it is primarily found on the outside, forming the cortex

Question 7

Five lobes of the brain

Answer 7

Frontal (executive, motor strip), parietal (spatial, sensory strip), temporal (memory&emotion, auditory), occipital (visual), insular (emotion, taste)

Question 8

Motor homunculi

Answer 8

Pre-central gyrus, specialized fro control of fine movements

Question 9

Sensory homunculi

Answer 9

Post-central gyrus

Question 10

Cortical cells organization

Answer 10

6 distinct laminae (layers), cells divided into columns

Question 11

Meninges

Answer 11

DAP (Dura, arachnoid, pia mater), surround the brain spinal cord

Question 12

Subdural hematoma

Answer 12

Collection of blood that accumulates between the brain and dura, most likely to occur when an older person falls

Question 13

Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)

Answer 13

In the central canal, four ventricles, and around the brain
Cushions the brain, provides hormones & nutrients, removes waster
Hydrocephalus - expansion of head due to build of CSF which must be created and drained

Question 14

MRI

Answer 14

Magnets aling H+ ions, used to show structure and damage

Question 15

CAT Scan

Answer 15

A lot of x-rays w/ & w/o contrast (+ computer), not as detailed, used to show structure & damage

Question 16

PET Scan

Answer 16

Radioactive tag, usually glucose, shows tumors & activity/function

Question 17

EEG

Answer 17

recordings of electricity, used to show function (especially for epilepsy, & sleep studies)

Question 18

Deep Brain Stimulation

Answer 18

1 electrode inserted, used to treat Parkinson’s disease

Question 19

Hemispherectomy

Answer 19

Remove/disconnect one whole sphere of the brain, to stop severe, uncontrollable seizures, brain will reorganize and adapt to new info coming in

Question 19

Magnetic Stimulation

Answer 19

magnets are used to activate brain areas (transcranial)

Question 20

Discuss the birth of neuropsychology and Paul Broca. Where is Broca’s area located in the brain?

Answer 20

Broca discovered Tan, who had damage to the posterior frontal lobe in his hemisphere. Broca’s aphasia (broken speech)

Question 21

Proliferation

Answer 21

Production of new cells

Question 22

Differentiation

Answer 22

Forming distinctive characteristics, differ in morphology & chemistry, axon 1st and then dendrites, happens in hippocampus

Question 23

Myelination

Answer 23

Oligodendrocytes myeline the spinal cord, and then the hindbrain, midbrain, & forebrain

Question 24

Synaptogenesis

Answer 24

Synapse formation occurs throughout life; neurons are constantly forming new connections

Question 25

Explain how stem cells are related to neuronal development, and state why they are important. Why do researchers seek to transplant undifferentiated cells?

Answer 25

Stem cells remain w/the potential to divide, they are undifferentiated cells that can transform into glia or neurons. Researchers seek to transplant them because they develop the properties of the new location. Neurons transplanted at a later stage develop some new properties but retain old ones

Question 26

What do chemical gradients have to do with neuronal migration?

Answer 26

Growing axons follow a gradient of chemicals; axons have a foot that is used to "sniff" out the proper path (growing baby analogy).

Question 27

Know the general details about his research (e.g., animals of choice, eye rotation, cells to target...)

Answer 27

Sperry's research showed that axons follow a chemical trail. He used frogs, cutting the optic nerve & rotating the eye 180 degrees. where the cells grew back to the tectum

Question 28

What happens with axons and dendrites during the process of neuroplasticity?

Answer 28

Collateral sprouts - induce axons to form branches to compensate for vacant receptors Dennervation supersensitivity - increase their sensitivity to NTs to compensate for decreased input (grow more dendrites)

Question 29

What did you learn about rehabilitation and forced use after brain damage?

Answer 29

It is much better to begin forced use/rehabilitation as soon as possible from the injury in order to increase greater chances of recovery. Window of opportunity is open, neurotrophins are released. Enriched environment is also helpful to encourage loved ones

Question 30

What cortical changes are found as a result of enriched environments? Explain how physical activity helps the brain. How does lack of exposure or excessive exposure (practice) alter the brain?

Answer 30

Cortical changes - thicker cortex, more dendritic branching and spines, enhances synaptic connections Physical activity - increases blood flow & O2, releases mood-enhancing neurochemicals, enhanced synaptic connections Lack of/excessive exposure - synapses will die (synaptic pruning), or too much reorganization

Question 31

Neural darwinism, neurotrophins, & apoptosis

Answer 31

Neural darwinism - initially form more connections than needed, most successful survive & all others die Neurotrophins - promotes the survival of& growth of neurons (Nerve growth factor) Apoptosis - programmed cell death to balance connections

Question 32

What do windows of opportunity and vulnerability have to do with early brain development?

Answer 32

Early stages of brain development are critical, neurons needs to make more connections, otherwise they will die

Question 33

Fetal Alchohol syndrome (FAS)

Answer 33

a teratogen, causes issues w/ cognition & other brain areas, release of glutamate is suppressed while GABA activity is enhances (neurons receive less excitation & neurotrophins than normal). Also alters migration pattern of small neurons. Dendrites are shorter w/fewer branches

Question 34

Cortical Changes w/practice

Answer 34

Increased gray matter (cell bodies) in the sensorimotor cortex and temporal lobe, as well was gray matter volume changes in the hippocampus.

Question 35

Musician's cramp

Answer 35

too much reorganization and the homunculus areas overlaps, fingers become clumsy, fatigue easily, & make involuntary movements

Question 36

Closed head injuries

Answer 36

Focal injury (sometimes predictable) where the Brian hits the skull & diffuse axonal injury (axons are stretched and compressed). Edemas are brain swelling (accumulation of fluid & increased pressure)

Question 37

Edemas

Answer 37

Edemas are brain swelling (accumulation of fluid & increased pressure). Disruption of Na+/K+ pump (increase in depolarizations), release of glutamate, mitochondrial function blocked & cells die (excess positive ions block mitochondria function) - action potential increases, mitochondria fail, & cell dies

Question 38

Ischemic Stroke

Answer 38

Most common, due to arterial obstruction (step on hose), restore flow by dissolving clots w/tPA

Question 39

Hemorrhagic

Answer 39

Ruptured partiers, blood runs into brain (punctured hose)

Question 40

Why is it most important to focus on the penumbra? What are some methods to decrease cell death?

Answer 40

The penumbra is the area around primary damage, can still be salvaged before it dies by: blocking glutamate synapses, calling the brain, through omega-3 fatty acids which may block apoptosis, cannabinoids that decrease release of glutamate and exert anti-inflammatory effects

Question 41

What limits axon reconnections in the CNS?

Answer 41

lack of help (fewer myelin tubes), chemical & physical barriers (myelin in the CNS inhibits growth), scar tissue creates a mechanical barrier

Question 42

Collateral Sprouting & Dennervation sensitivity

Answer 42

Grow axons and dendrites to make up for lost synapses and neurons