1
Q
Temperature has a ___ effect on enzyme reaction rates
A
Variable
2
Q
Degrades damaged or misfolded proteins
A
Intracellular proteolysis
3
Q
Proteins are made of a sequence of ___ chained together
A
Amino acids
4
Q
Enzymes have to be in their ___ conditions to work at their most efficient
A
Optimal
5
Q
Lowering pH: more ___
A
Acidic
6
Q
When the enzyme and substrate are bound together
A
Enzyme-substrate complex
7
Q
Builds up monomers into biological polymers for energy storage. Endergonic, meaning they require a net investment of free energy into the bonds between the monomers. Water is a byproduct
A
Anabolism (dehydration Synthesis)
8
Q
Hydrolysis: process by which ___ are ___ into ___. Water is a ___
A
Polymers, broken down, monomers, reactant
9
Q
Water is used as a reactant
A
Hydrolysis (catabolism)
10
Q
Because of the unique shape of the active site on the enzyme, only substrates with the ___ shape can bind
A
Complementary
11
Q
Breaks down dietary proteins into absorbable amino acids in the small intestine
A
Digestive proteolysis
12
Q
Another term for catabolism
A
hydrolysis
13
Q
Substances with basic pH’s have a high concentration of ___ ions
A
OH-
14
Q
Reactant that is changed by the enzyme
A
Substrate
15
Q
Where the substrate binds. Matches the shape and chemical properties of the substrate
A
Active site
16
Q
Raising pH: more ___
A
Basic
17
Q
catabolism is ___gonic
A
Exergonic
18
Q
Enzymes are ___ and ___ used up or changed in the reaction
A
Reusable, are NOT
19
Q
Properties of a fibrous protein - shape, role, solubility in water, sequence of amino acids, stability, examples(2):
A
- Shape: long and narrow
- Role: structural (strength and support)
- Solubility in water: mostly insoluble
- Sequence of amino acids: repetitive
- Stability: less sensitive to changes in heat and pH
- Examples: collagen, keratin
20
Q
factors that can affect enzyme rate and efficiency (5)
A
- Optimal temperature and pH
- Substrate Concentration
- Enzyme Concentration
- Product Concentration
- Presence of inhibitors
21
Q
When nucleotides are assembled into new DNA strands. This process requires energy from nucleotide triphosphates
A
DNA replication
22
Q
Enzymes in extreme conditions will ___, eliminating the enzyme’s ability to catalyze reactions
A
Denature
23
Q
Another term for anabolism
A
dehydration synthesis
24
Q
The function of a protein depends on the ___
A
Shape
25
a mouth enzyme that breaks down starch
Amylase
26
What type of proteins are enzymes
Globular
27
When the substrate binds, the enzyme - substrate complex undergoes a ___ change (aka it ___) and surrounds the substrate to catalyze and speed up the chemical reaction.
Conformational, changes shape
28
Catabolic reactions (3)
1. Cellular respiration
2. Proteolysis
3. Lipolysis
29
When glucose is systematically broken down through glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, and electron transport chain. forming approximately 38 molecules of ATP per glucose molecule
Cellular respiration
30
The combination of chemical reactions that synthesize and hydrolyze biomolecules for energy storage and release in an organism
Metabolism
31
Non-protein, small, inorganic compounds & ions bound within an enzyme molecule. Examples: Mg, K, Ca, Zn, Fe, Cu
Cofactors
32
Anabolic reactions (3)
1. Photosynthesis
2. Protein synthesis
3. DNA replication
33
When amino acids are linked together to form complex proteins. This process requires energy from ATP
protein synthesis
34
Non-protein, organic molecules that bind near the active site and assist reactions. Examples: NAD+ (niacin; B3) and FADH (riboflavin; B2)
Coenzymes
35
The shape of a protein depends on the ___
Folding
36
a measure of how close to their maximum rate enzymes are working
Enzyme efficiency
37
Photosynthesis: ___ + ___ -> ___ + ___
Carbon dioxide + water -> glucose + oxygen
38
Substances with acidic pH’s have a high concentration of ___ ions
H+
39
Anabolism is ___gonic
Endergonic
40
a stomach enzyme that breaks down proteins
Pepsin
41
Breaks down biological polymers into monomers to help generate ATP. Exergonic, meaning there is a net release of free energy. Water is a reactant
Catabolism (Hydrolysis)
42
Properties of a globular protein - shape, role, solubility in water, sequence of amino acids, stability, examples(3):
1. Shape: round/spherical
2. Role: functional (catalysts and transport)
3. Solubility in water: mostly soluble
4. Sequence of amino acids: irregular
5. Stability: more sensitive to changes in heat and pH
6. Examples: hemoglobin, catalase, insulin
43
Enzymes outside their optimal conditions will be ___ efficient and have a ___ reaction rate
Less, lower
44
Help enzymes (2)
1. Cofactors
2. Coenzymes
45
Water is formed as a byproduct
Dehydration synthesis (anabolism)
46
The breakdown of stored triglycerides into three fatty acid molecules and one glycerol molecule. This process becomes activated during periods of energy demand such as fasting, exercise, or stress
Lipolysis
47
Dehydration synthesis: process by which ___ are ___ into ___. Water is a ___
Monomers, covalently bonded, polymers, byproduct
48
The active site is composed of a unique combination of ___
Amino acids
49
How many molecules of ATP per glucose molecule does cellular respiration make
38
50
OH- and H+ ions break ___ bonds and ___ interactions, disrupting secondary and tertiary structure and causing ___ of the enzyme
Hydrogen, ionic, denaturation
51
Above optimal temperatures: too ___ energy available. This causes amino acid side chains to move ___, which disrupts weak interactions between amino acid side chains. This disrupts the ___ and ___ structure of the enzyme, causing denaturation. Reaction rate falls to ___
Much, faster, secondary, tertiary, zero
52
The breakdown of proteins through hydrolysis. Digestive ___ in the small intestine breaks down dietary proteins into absorbable amino acids. Intracellular ___ degrades damaged or misfolded proteins
Proteolysis
53
All chemical reactions require a certain amount of energy to occur, called ___. Enzymes lower this, so the reaction goes faster (Does not add or take away energy from the reaction)
Activation energy
54
Types of proteins (7)
1. Structure
2. Hormone
3. Immunity
4. Transport
5. Sensory
6. Movement
7. Enzyme
55
Enzymes have a ___ at which they can catalyze reactions. This is different for each enzyme
Maximum rate
56
The ___, ___, ___, and ___ of active site amino acids create a very specific chemical environment within the active site to which the substrate is attracted
Positions, sequence, structures, properties
57
Suboptimal temperatures: lack of energy ___ the amount of collisions between the enzyme and substrate. Reaction rate ___
Decreases, slows/stops
58
All energy on earth comes from ___
The Sun
59
Solar energy is converted into ___ energy and stored in the bonds of glucose through ___
Chemical potential, carbon fixation
60
Equation for photosynthesis
6CO2 + 6H2O -> C6H12O6 + 6O2
61
The two phases of photosynthesis that have a reciprocal relationship
1. Light dependent reactions
2. Light independent reactions
62
These reactions occur in the thylakoid membranes in the chloroplast. This is where sunlight energy and water are used to generate small amounts of ATP as well as the electron-carrying molecule NADPH
Light dependent reactions
63
Also known as the calvin cycle, this reaction occurs in the stroma of the chloroplast (akin to cytoplasm). This is where carbon fixation occurs. The Calvin Cycle uses ATP and NADPH from these reactions to remove the inorganic carbon from carbon dioxide and fix it (or put it onto) a 5 carbon molecule to make Glucose. The calvin cycle regenerates NADP+ and ADP which is recycled into these reactions
Light independent reactions
64
Happens in the thylakoid
Light dependent reactions
65
Happens in the chloroplast stroma
Light independent reactions
66
Uses sunlight energy and water to make ATP and NADPH
Light dependent reactions
67
Type of reaction that requires simultaneous reduction and oxidation of two reactants (another example of reaction coupling)
Oxidation-Reduction (Redox) Reactions
68
Photosynthesis and cellular respiration both rely on redox reactions to shuttle ___ between the ___ and ___ parts of the processes
electrons, endergonic, exergonic
69
OIL RIG
Oxygen is Loss, Reduction is Gain
70
When oxidized molecules lose/give up electrons
Oxidation
71
When reduced molecules gain/ receive electrons
Reduction
72
Oxidized compounds: ___ of atoms like hydrogen or carbon, ___ of a positive charge
loss, gain
73
Reduced compounds: ___ of atoms like hydrogen or carbon, ___ of a positive charge
gain, loss
74
Molecules that can be both oxidized AND reduced
Electron carriers
75
These shuttle high energy electrons from the light dependent reactions to the light independent reactions
Electron carriers
76
Electron carriers shuttle high-energy electrons from light ___ reactions to light ___ reactions
Dependent, independent
77
Examples of electron carriers (3)
1. NADP+/ NADPH
2. NAD+/NADH
3. FADH/FADH2
78
How many electrons does Hydrogen have
1
79
These can strike and transfer energy into valence shell electrons. This “excites” the electron and causes it to jump up to higher energy level orbitals
Photons of light
80
It is possible for electron carriers to capture electrons that jump to higher energy level orbitals, leaving behind an ___ molecule
Ionized
81
5 main parts of chloroplast anatomy
1. Stoma
2. Double Membrane
3. Thylakoid
4. Granum
5. Lamella
82
Basically a chloroplast's cytosol. Has the enzymes and pH for the Calvin cycle (light independent reactions)
Stroma
83
Evidence for endosymbiosis (independent origin)
Double membrane
84
Has ETC and ATP synthase for photophosphorylation (also has chlorophyll molecules in its photosystem proteins). Light dependent reactions occur on the membrane
Thylakoid
85
Flat membrane stacks of thylakoid that increase the SA:V ratio. Also has small internal volumes to quickly accumulate ions
Granum
86
Connects and separates grana (granum)
Lamella
87
The inside of the thylakoid
Lumen
88
These contain chlorophyll molecules within the thylakoid
Photosystem proteins
89
Light-absorbing pigment that absorbs all wavelengths of light except for green light, which is reflected instead
Chlorophyll
90
As wavelength gets bigger, the amount of energy in the light ___
decreases
91
Violet light = ___ wavelength, ___ energy
Shortest, highest
92
Red light = ___ wavelength, ___ energy
Longest, lowest
93
Show the wavelengths of light that are absorbed by different photosynthetic pigments
Absorbance spectra
94
Absorbance spectra: absorbed light that is used for photosynthesis
Peaks
95
Absorbance spectra: reflected light that is seen by the eye and not used for photosynthesis
Valley(s)
96
Reflected color of chlorophyll a
yellow-green
97
Reflected color of chlorophyll b
blue-green
98
Reflected color of carotenoids
orange
99
Reflected color of anthocyanins
Red (or purple/blue)
100
A graph of wavelength vs rate of photosynthesis. Profiles the relative effectiveness of different wavelengths of visible light for driving
Action spectrum
101
Anatomy of a mitochondria (5)
1. Outer membrane
2. Inner membrane
3. Inter membrane space
4. Cristae
5. Matrix
102
This is the site of electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation in mitochondria
Inner membrane
103
This is where the linking step happens in mitochondria
Outer membrane
104
This is where the citric acid cycle happens in mitochondria
Matrix
105
These are folded membranes in mitochondria to increase SA:V ratio
Cristae
106
This is the space between the outer membrane and inner membrane of mitochondria
Intermembrane space
107
Molecules that can be oxidized and reduced
Electron carriers
108
These move high-energy electrons from various steps of aerobic respiration to the electron transport chain
Electron carriers
109
Electron carriers in cellular respiration (2)
1. NAD+/NADH
2. FADH/FADH2
110
Ancestral ___ were the first to evolve the use of aerobic cellular respiration
Prokaryotes
111
Why was the evolution of aerobic respiration advantageous
It allowed ancient prokaryotes to process oxygen without dying
112
How did eukaryotic cells evolve to be able to use cellular respiration
Endosymbiosis of a prokaryote that could perform cellular respiration and one that couldn’t
113
The process of converting chemical energy stored in glucose bonds into useable chemical energy in ATP (used in ALL living organisms)
Cellular respiration
114
Another term for anaerobic respiration (doesn’t require oxygen)
Fermentation
115
Regenerates the electron carrier NAD+ for use in glycolysis
Anaerobic respiration
116
Generates ATP for use in cellular processes that maintain homeostasis
Aerobic respiration
117
The two steps of anaerobic respiration (fermentation)
1. Glycolysis
2. NAD+ regeneration
118
A set of anaerobic chemical reactions that occur in the cytoplasm to oxidize glucose into 2 molecules of pyruvate. Requires reduction of 2 NAD+ to NADH and breakdown of 2 ATP molecules, but it also makes 4 ATP (net gain of 2 ATP)
Glycosis
119
This carries high-energy electrons to later parts of aerobic respiration
NADH
120
Two phases of glycosis
1. Energy investment phase
2. Energy payoff phase
121
This must occur before any form of respiration can occur
Glycolysis
122
This acid is a precursor for anaerobic and aerobic respiration
Pyruvate
123
Process that breaks down ATP and oxidizes NADH to NAD+ in the absence of oxygen
Fermentation (anaerobic respiration)
124
What process allows glycolysis to occur even if aerobic respiration is not occurring and thus unable to replenish the NAD+ supply
Fermentation
125
Two types of fermentation
1. Alcohol fermentation (plants, bacteria, yeast)
2. Lactic acid fermentation (animals)
126
Lactic acid fermentation equation
2 pyruvic acid -> 2 lactic acid
127
Alcohol fermentation equation
2 pyruvic acid -> 2 ethanol + 2CO2
128
Aerobic cellular respiration equation
C6H12O6 + 6O2 -> 6CO2 + 6H2O
129
“Steps” of aerobic respiration (4)
1. Glycolysis (anaerobic)
2. Pyruvate oxidation (linking step)
3. Citric acid cycle (Krebs cycle)
4. Electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation (chemiosmosis?)
130
When pyruvate is converted into acetyl-CoA as it is transported from the cytoplasm across the mitochondrial membrane and into the matrix
Pyruvate oxidation
131
Pyruvate oxidation: ___ from glycolysis is converted into ___, which goes to the ___
Pyruvate, Acetyl-CoA, Citric acid cycle
132
Pyruvate oxidation: ___ from the cell environment is converted into ___, which goes to the ___
NAD+, NADH, electron transport chain
133
When Acetyl-CoA goes through a series of exergonic chemical reactions that reduce NAD+ to NADH and FADH to FADH2
Citric acid cycle (Krebs cycle)
134
Citric acid cycle: ___ from linking step is converted into ___, which goes to ___
Acetyl-CoA, oxaloacetate, the citric acid cycle
135
Citric acid cycle (NAD): ___ from the cell environment is converted into ___, which goes to ___
3 NAD+/1 FADH, 3 NADH/1 FADH2, electron transport chain
136
Citric acid cycle (ATP): ___ from the cell environment is converted into ___, which goes to ___
ADP, ATP, be used for cell processes
137
How much ATP is made during glycolysis
2 ATP
138
How much ATP is made during pyruvate oxidation
0 ATP
139
How much ATP is made during the citric acid cycle
2 ATP
140
How much ATP is made during the electron transport chain
32 ATP
141
Where does ETC occur
On the inner mitochondrial membrane
142
In ETC, ___ and ___ are oxidized, releasing electrons and energy
NADH and FADH2
143
In ETC, ___ and ___ are recycled back into the cell environment
NAD+ and FADH
144
Electrons move through the ETC, ___ energy until they combine with ___ and ___ ions to form water as a waste product
Losing, O2, H+
145
Energy released in the ETC is used to maintain an __ ion gradient across the inner mitochondrial membrane
H+
146
When H+ ions diffuse through ATP synthase from the matrix to the intermembrane space. Energy form this diffusion is captured and used to phosphorylate ADP into ATP
Oxidative phosphorylation
147
This stage of aerobic respiration phosphorylates ADP into ATP
Oxidative phosphorylation
148
Oxidative phosphorylation generates __-__ ATP
32-34 ATP
149
What happens to the energy not captured from oxidation of NADH during the ETC
It is given off as heat
150
These organisms will decouple the ETC and oxidative phosphorylation to generate more heat and regulate body temperature
Homeothermic
151
When would cells favor fermentation/glycolysis over aerobic respiration
When oxygen levels are low or absent
152
When would cells favor aerobic respiration over fermentation
When there is an adequate supply of oxygen for aerobic respiration to take place (also it makes more energy and less lactic acid)
153
When chemical energy instead of solar energy is converted into sugars. Happens in areas with little/no access to sunlight like hydrothermal vents
Chemosynthesis
154
Examples of chemical energy used in chemosynthesis (2)
1. Methane
2. Hydrogen sulfide
155
Organisms that use photosynthesis (3)
1. Plants
2. Algae
3. Some bacteria
156
Organisms that use chemosynthesis (2)
1. Extremophile bacteria
2. Extremophile archaea
157
How do photosynthesis and cellular respiration relate to each other and the balance of carbon and oxygen on Earth?
The reactants for photosynthesis are the products for cellular respiration, and the reactants for cellular respiration are the products for photosynthesis. Photosynthesis uses CO2 to make O2, and cellular respiration uses O2 to make CO2
158
Light dependent reaction equation
Sun energy + H2O -> O2 + ATP + NADPH
159
Light independent reaction equation (Calvin cycle)
CO2 + ATP + NADPH -> NADP+ + ADP(+P?) + CH2O (Sugar)
160
How does CO2 enter an organism for photosynthesis
Through its stomata (or via diffusion for algae/bacteria)
161
Factors that determine how far up a leaf pigment moves in a chromatography experiment (4)
1. Solubility (more = higher)
2. Molecule size (small = higher)
3. Polar vs nonpolar (polar = higher)
4. Weight (lighter = higher)
162
Retention factor/Rf value equation
Distance pigment traveled / distance solvent traveled
163
what would happen if any of the reactants/products in photosynthesis or cellular respiration were inhibited
The processes wouldn’t be able to function in the absence of any processes’ reactants/products since they rely on each other like a cycle. Thus, the organism would stop getting energy and would soon die
164
What happens to the light that plants capture that is not turned into chemical energy
It is released as heat
165
The process of using H+ protons in the intermembrane space (moved there from the matrix via the ETC) to power ATP synthase enzymes (H+ channels back to the matrix), which allows the enzymes to catalyze the addition of a phosphate to turn ADP into ATP
Chemiosimotic coupling
166
How is chemiosmosis coupling related to photosynthesis and cellular respiration
It is responsible for creating the ATP that powers both of them
167
What is most necessary for a substrate molecule and an enzyme’s active site to come together
Movement
168
The active site of an enzyme has a ___ binding affinity for the substrate
High
169
Interactions between ___ within the three-dimensional structure of the enzyme ensure that the active site has the necessary properties for catalysis
Amino acids
170
the minimum energy required for a reaction to occur
activation energy
171
Example of an enzyme–substrate complex
lactase and lactose
172
Energy is ___ when ATP is hydrolysed to ADP and phosphate, while energy is ___ when synthesizing ATP from ADP and phosphate
released, required
173
is ATP short-term or long-term energy storage
Short-term
174
Which of the processes in cell respiration will fatty acids not go through
Glycolysis (fatty acids directly enter the link reaction and produce many molecules of acetyl CoA)
175
Is cellular respiration gradual or sudden
gradual
176
What property can affect the absorption of light by a pigment
pigment color
177
___ spectra show the wavelengths of light that activate photosynthesis, while ___ spectra display the wavelengths of light absorbed by a pigment
Action, absorption
178
The ___ spectrum represents the rate of photosynthesis at each wavelength of light while the ___ spectrum shows the percentage of light absorbed at each wavelength
action, absorption
179
The rate of photosynthesis is ___ proportional to light intensity up to a certain point
directly
180
The energy absorbed by chlorophyll is used directly for what in plants? (2)
1. to produce ATP
2. To split water
181
From which molecule(s) is oxygen released into the air as a product of photosynthesis?
water
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