1
Q
specialized haploid cells produced via meiosis
A
Gametes
2
Q
Male gamete
A
Sperm
3
Q
Female gamete
A
ovum
4
Q
Organs that produce gametes and hormones
essential for reproduction
A
Gonads
5
Q
Male gonads
A
testes
6
Q
Female gonads
A
Ovaries
7
Q
External reproductive structures
A
Genitals
8
Q
Male genitals
A
Penis
9
Q
Female genitals
A
Vulva
10
Q
Components of the female reproductive system (6)
A
- Ovaries
- Oviducts
- Uterus w/ endometrium
- Cervix
- Vagina
- Vulva
11
Q
small, oval-shaped glands located on either side of the uterus. They produce, store and release eggs and make hormones that control the menstrual cycle and pregnancy
A
Ovaries
12
Q
the tubes that serve as passage between the ovary and uterus. At ovulation, the egg enters. If sperm is present, fertilization occurs here
A
Oviducts (fallopian tubes)
13
Q
a hollow muscular organ that nourishes a developing fetus prior to birth
A
Uterus
14
Q
The inner layer of the uterus. During the menstrual cycle, it grows a blood vessel-rich tissue layer to prepare the uterus for implantation of an embryo
A
Endometrium
15
Q
The lower portion of the uterus that connects the uterus to the vagina for menstruation and birth. It allows sperm into the uterus and serves as a physical and chemical barrier to infection, producing a mucus as a primary defense against pathogens
A
Cervix
16
Q
a muscular canal lined with mucus membranes that connects the uterus and cervix to the outside of the body, allowing for menstruation, intercourse, and childbirth
A
Vagina
17
Q
all of the structures that make the female external genitalia. Functions as sensory tissue and protection of internal structures from infection
A
Vulva
18
Q
Components of the male reproductive system (5)
A
- Testis and epididymis within the scrotum
- Vas deferens
- Seminal vesicles
- Prostate gland
- Penis with urethra
19
Q
a sac protecting the testes. It keeps the testes outside of the body, where the temperature is several degrees below the average body temperature
A
Scrotum
20
Q
responsible for making sperm and producing testosterone
A
Testes
21
Q
an important hormone during male development and maturation for developing muscles, deepening the voice, and growing body hair
A
Testosterone
22
Q
a long, coiled tube on top of each testis. Sperm mature here before moving into the vas deferens
A
Epididymis
23
Q
a long, muscular tube that travels from the epididymis into the pelvic cavity. It merges with the urethra near the bladder and transports mature sperm to the urethra in preparation for ejaculation
A
Vase deferens
24
Q
glands that produce a fluid that is high in fructose, a sugar that provides nutrients for sperm cells, as well as other proteins, enzymes, and mucus. This fluid is the major component of semen
A
Seminal vesicles
25
Gland that adds an alkaline (base pH) fluid to the semen. The fluid neutralizes the slightly acidic pH of the vagina
Prostate gland
26
a narrow tube that moves urine and semen to the exterior of the body
Urethra
27
the male external genitalia. During copulation, it penetrates the vagina for ejaculation of semen near the cervix
Penis
28
a pattern of changes in hormone production and the structures of the uterus and ovaries of the female reproductive system that makes pregnancy possible. It begins at puberty and stops at menopause
Menstrual cycle
29
The menstrual cycle includes these cycles (2)
1. Ovarian cycle
2. Uterine cycle
30
refers to the series of changes in the ovary during which the follicle matures, an egg is released, and the corpus luteum develops
Ovarian cycle
31
refers to the series of changes in the uterus during which the endometrium is built in anticipation of implantation by an embryo and then shed if no pregnancy occurs
Uterine Cycle
32
Median time of a menstrual cycle
28 days
33
Main phases of the ovarian cycle and their lengths (2)
1. Follicular phase (1-14d)
2. Luteal phase (15-28d)
34
Phase in which a follicle (fluid-filled sac w/ an immature egg cell) develops within the ovary. One follicle develops per month to release the egg at ovulation. Ovulation on day 14 marks the end of this phase
Follicular phase
35
Phase in which the walls of the ruptured follicle develop into a temporary mass of cells within the ovary called the corpus luteum. If a pregnancy does not occur, the corpus luteum breaks down and the ovary returns to the next follicular phase
Luteal phase
36
The follicular phase of the ovarian cycle is activated by this hormone
Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH)
37
FSH is triggered by ___ from the hypothalamus during the follicular phase and is released from the pituitary and travels through the blood to the ovaries. At the ovaries, FSH causes the development of the follicle and the production of ___
gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH), oestradiol
38
Other name for oestradiol
Estrogen
39
Cells that are found in the follicle and, when stimulated by FSH, secrete oestradiol and cause a follicle to increase in size in preparation for ovulation
Granulosa cells
40
the rupture of a developed follicle to release the egg into the oviduct
Ovulation
41
Ovulation is triggered by a rapid rise in this hormone
Luteinizing Hormone (LH)
42
Triggered by (GnRH) from the hypothalamus, LH is released from the pituitary and travels through the blood to the ovaries. At the ovaries it causes ___ of the follicle wall, allowing it to ___ to release the egg
partial digestion, burst
43
Triggered by GnRH from the hypothalamus, ___ is released from the pituitary during the luteal phase and travels through the blood to the ovaries where it causes the development of a ___ from the remains of the ruptured follicle
Luteinizing Hormone (LH), corpus luteum
44
The cells of the corpus luteum secrete ___ and ___ which cause the thickening of the ___
Oestradiol, progesterone, endometrium
45
temporary mass of hormone producing cells that forms from the follicle after ovulation
Corpus luteum
46
During most of the ovarian cycle, oestradiol provides ___ feedback to the hypothalamus, which lowers the levels of FSH and LH being secreted and subsequently, the levels of oestradiol produced
Negative
47
During days 12-14 of the ovarian cycle, oestradiol switches to provide ___ feedback to the hypothalamus, which causes an increase in the level of LH being secreted and leads to ovulation
Positive
48
If no pregnancy occurs, oestradiol and progesterone levels begin to ___, causing the endometrial tissue to begin to ___
Drop, degrade
49
Low levels of oestradiol and progesterone trigger shedding of the endometrium from the uterus
Menses
50
ising levels of oestradiol and progesterone from the ovary follicle and then corpus luteum cause growth of the endometrium in anticipation of implantation of an embry
Proliferation phases
51
Dropping levels of oestradiol and progesterone from the degradation of the corpus luteum cause the endometrium lining to begin to weaken and degrade
Secretory phase
52
Sperm can live about __ days within the female reproductive tract
5d
53
After ovulation, an egg can live for __-__ hours
12-24h
54
Through fertilization, the ___ nuclei of the two ___ of parents come together to form a new ___ organism
Haploid, gametes, diploid
55
When sperm change their swimming direction according to a temperature gradient, swimming towards a warmer temperature
Thermotaxis
56
When the sperm move in response to a chemical gradient
Chemotaxis
57
Sperm plasma membranes have receptors that detect ___ released by the egg
Chemicals
58
Of the 300,000,000 human sperm ejaculated, only about __ reach the site of fertilization in the oviduct
200
59
cells that form around a developing egg in the ovary and remain with it upon ovulation. They secrete hormones that trigger the acrosomal reaction in the sperm
Corona cells
60
In this reaction, enzymes in the sperm’s head digest the zona pellucida of the egg
Acrosomal reaction
61
a glycoprotein matrix surrounding the egg cell membrane
zona pellucida
62
do the sperm tail and mitochondria enter the egg?
No
63
Reaction in which, upon fusion of the sperm and egg membranes, the zona pellucida around the egg hardens to prevent entry of more sperm. This ensures that the egg is not fertilized by multiple sperm and that the zygote will have the correct number of chromosomes
cortical reaction
64
It takes between __-__ hours after fertilization for the sperm and egg nuclei to find each other and for their nuclear membranes break down
24-30hrs
65
The sperm and egg nuclei each release __ chromosomes which jointly participate in mitosis as the zygote divides to become an embryo
23
66
Embryonic cell ___ is rapid, with cells ___ growth phases. As result, the number of cells ___, but the size of the individual cells gets ___
Proliferation, omitting, increases, smaller
67
the fusion of gametes to give rise to a zygote of a new individual organism
Fertilization
68
Fertilization that occurs in the oviduct during natural conception
In vivo fertilization
69
A form of medically assisted reproduction where fertilization occurs outside of the body in controlled laboratory conditions
In vitro fertilization
70
Steps of IVF (6)
1. Down regulation
2. Ovarian stimulation
3. Egg retrieval
4. Fertilization
5. Endometrial preparation
6. Embryo transfer
71
IVF step: Injections of medications are administered daily for about two weeks. These drugs stop the pituitary from secreting Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) and Luteinizing Hormone (LH) which suspends the normal menstrual cycle
Down regulation
72
IVF step: administration of high doses of Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) via 7-12 days of daily injection. The FSH triggers development of multiple follicles rather than the typical one follicle per cycle
Ovarian stimulation
73
IVF step: oocyte retrieval involves using a needle with a vacuum suction to draw eggs out of the ovarian follicles. An ultrasound device is used to guide the needle through the vagina and into the follicles to collect the eggs
Egg retrieval
74
IVF step: each egg is mixed with a sample of sperm in a shallow dish to allow for fertilization and are incubated for 1-2 days to see if a zygote forms and begins to divide into an embryo
Fertilization
75
IVF step: oestradiol and progesterone are prescribed. These meditations stimulate the thickening of the endometrium in preparation for implantation of an embryo
Endometrial preparation
76
IVF step: if fertilization was successful, one or more embryos are placed into the uterus when they are between 2 and 6 days old. The embryo(s) implant into the uterus endometrium and continue to grow
Embryo transfer
77
a multi-step process in which a sperm and egg fuse to form a single cell called a zygote
Fertilization
78
The cells in the zygote and embryo are unspecialized ___. However, as the cells of the embryo continue to divide, they begin to specialize in ___ and ___
Stem cells, structure, function
79
In humans, there are an estimated __ distinct cell types
220
80
the development of specialized structures and functions in cells
Differentiation
81
Differentiation occurs when different cell types express different ___
Genes
82
the process by which the information encoded in a gene is turned into a function. Often a sequence of DNA is transcribed to form RNA, which is then translated to form a protein
Gene expression
83
The ___ of a cell within the embryo determines how it differentiates
Position
84
Signaling chemical molecules that direct cell fate decisions (and thus, gene expression) in a concentration-dependent manner
Morphogen
85
Morphogens control these during embryonic development to orchestrate the formation of tissues and organs (3)
1. proliferation
2. differentiation
3. patterning
86
The cells closest to the sending cell will be exposed to a ___ concentration of the morphogen, while the cells further from the sending cell will be exposed to a ___ concentration
High, low
87
A morphogen that plays important roles in cell growth, differentiation, and organ development. It diffuses throughout the embryo, switching genes on and off and imparting different cell fates depending on its concentration
Retinoic acid
88
an undifferentiated cell that can divide indefinitely to create more of itself and differentiate to become a specialized cell type in a multicellular organism
Stem cell
89
Is there a limit to the number of times a stem cell can divide?
No
90
many tissues and organs contain a small number of ___ adult stem cells
Multipotent
91
locations within the tissues where stem cells reside and receive physical and chemical signals that interact and integrate to influence the fate of the stem cell
Stem cell niches
92
Sometimes the conditions of stem cell niches allow the stem cells to remain ___, staying ___ for years. At other times--such as with tissue injury, disease or anything else that makes the body need more cells--the conditions of the stem cell niche allow the adult stem cells to begin to ___ and divide rapidly
undifferentiated, dormant, differentiate
93
Many human blood cells, such as red blood cells, immune cells and platelets, all originate from this multipotent adult stem cell
hematopoietic stem cell
94
Hematopoietic stem cells are located in the hematopoietic stem cell niche found in this
Bone marrow
95
Epithelial skin cells, such as melanocytes and keratinocytes all originate from this multipotent adult stem cell
Hair follicle stem cell
96
"entirely potential" stem cell that can become any body cell. Ex: zygote
Totipotent
97
“Many potentials” stem cell that can become any body cell except the placenta. Ex: inner cell mass of a blastocyst
Pluripotent
98
"Multiple potentials” stem cell that has partially differentiated but can still become multiple, related cell types. Ex: adult stem cells
Multipotent
99
"One potential" cells that are fully differentiated. Ex: nerve cells
Unipotent
100
Pluripotent stem cells in plants: SAM and RAM
Shoot apical meristem and root apical meristem
101
The animal zygote is ___potent and the animal embryo is ___potent. Once the animal body has developed into a fetus, animals have “adult” ___potent stem cells in regions stem cell niches
Toti, pluri, multi
102
pluripotent, fully differentiated, somatic stem cells that are "reprogrammed” to a state very similar to pluripotent embryonic cells
induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSC)
103
iPSC are derived from ___ or ___ cells
Skin, blood
104
all living cells must exchange ___ between themselves and their surrounding environment
Gasses
105
___ organisms exchange gases with the air
Terrestrial
106
___ organisms exchange gases with the water
Aquatic
107
as exchange primarily occurs through ___
Diffusion
108
In plants, gas exchange primarily occurs through these pores in leaves
Stomata
109
a larger surface area allows for a significantly ___ amount of gas exchange
Higher
110
As an organism increases in size, its volume increases at a ___ rate than its surface area, resulting in larger organisms having a ___ SA:V ratio, and a ___ distance to the center of the organism for gases
Faster, smaller, larger
111
a specialized area within an organism where gases are exchanged between the body and the surrounding environment, typically through the process of diffusion
Gas exchange surface
112
Why are gas exchange surfaces moist
gases need to dissolve in a liquid before they can diffuse across a membrane
113
This process maintains the concentration gradients at the cellular level
Cellular respiration
114
This process maintains the concentration gradients at the tissue level
Blood flow
115
This process maintains the concentration gradient at the organ level
Ventilation
116
The trachea is lined with these to sweep out foreign particles
Cilia
117
Cells that create the alveolear walls
Type 1 pneumocytes
118
These cells secrete surfactant within the alveoli
Type 2 pneumocytes
119
consists of phospholipids and proteins that form a thin film on the surface of the alveoli. Reduces surface tension, preventing the alveoli walls from sticking together and “collapsing” during expiration
Surfactant
120
As the volume of a gas ___, its pressure ___, and vice versa
Decreases, increases
121
a graph that shows the volume and frequency of breaths over time. It's a common way to measure lung function and can help diagnose lung disease
Spirogram
122
Ventilation rates and lung volumes depend on these (5)
1. health
2. age
3. sex
4. height
5. fitness
123
normal adult tidal volume
500mL
124
the maximum amount of air that a person can exhale from their lungs after taking a maximum breath
Vital capacity
125
Normal adult tidal capacity
3-5L
126
the amount of air that can be inhaled forcefully after a normal breath
Inspiratory reserve volume
127
the amount of air that can be exhaled forcefully after a normal breath
Expiratory reserve volume
128
an apparatus used for measuring the volume of air inspired and expired by the lungs. It can be connected to computer interfaces for easy visualization of the data
Spirometer
129
Method of measuring lung volumes by filling a container with water, inverting it, and blowing into a tube connected to the container, displacing the water
Water displacement
130
refers to the strength of the interaction or binding between two molecules
Affinity
131
a graph that represents the affinity of haemoglobin for oxygen at different oxygen concentrations
Oxygen dissociation curve
132
X-axis of an oxygen dissociation curve
partial pressure of oxygen (pO2), a measure of the concentration of oxygen in a mixture of gasses
133
Y-axis of an oxygen dissociation curve
the percentage saturation of haemoglobin with oxygen, indicating the proportion of haemoglobin molecules carrying oxygen
134
the pressure due to a specific gas in a mixture of gasses
Partial pressure
135
International standard unit for pressure
Pascal (Pa)
136
Partial pressure calculation
Total atmospheric pressure x gas's fractional concentration
137
kPa of the atmosphere at sea level (inspired air)
21kPa
138
kPa of air in alveolar lumen
15kPa
139
kPa of oxygenated blood leaving the lungs
13kPa
140
kPa of tissue cells at rest
5kPa
141
kPa of metabolically active tissue cells
3kPa
142
Partial pressure of oxygen
PO2
143
the percentage of haemoglobin molecules in the blood that are bound to oxygen, aka measurement of how much oxygen blood is carrying
Haemoglobin saturation
144
When there is a higher amount of available O2 , haemoglobin has ___ affinity for oxygen
High
145
a biological phenomenon where the binding of one molecule (O2) to a macromolecule (haemoglobin) with multiple binding sites influences the affinity of the remaining, unoccupied binding sites for subsequent molecules. Gives the oxygen dissociation curve its characteristic S-shape
Cooperative binding
146
Haemoglobin possesses __ oxygen-binding sites. Oxygen bind to haemoglobin ___, meaning that if one site binds oxygen, the other sites quickly follow in binding.
4, cooperatively
147
In the lungs where pO2 is high, the first oxygen molecule ___ to one of haemoglobin's four binding sites. This initial event triggers a ___ change of the haemoglobin molecule, dramatically ___ the affinity of the remaining binding sites for oxygen. It becomes progressively ___ for the second, third, and fourth oxygen molecules to bind
Binds, conformational, increasing, easier
148
At the tissue cells, where pO2 is lower, the first oxygen molecule ___ from one of haemoglobin's four binding sites.
This initial event triggers a ___ change of the haemoglobin molecule, dramatically ___ the affinity of the remaining binding sites for oxygen. It becomes progressively ___ for the second, third, and fourth oxygen molecules to unbind
Unbinds, conformational, reducing, easier
149
Fetal haemoglobin has a ___ affinity for oxygen than the adult form of haemoglobin. This means that fetal haemoglobin is ___ at binding to and picking up oxygen even when pO2 is lower
Stronger, better
150
Fetal haemoglobin (HbF) is composed of two ___ and two ___ subunits
alpha, gamma
151
Adult haemoglobin (HbA) is composed of two ___ and two ___ subunits
Alpha, beta
152
Steps of fetal haemoglobin and oxygen movement (
1. Mom’s adult haemoglobin (HbA) releases O2
2. O2 diffuses from maternal red blood cell towards the placenta
3. O2 diffuses into the placenta
4. O2 diffuses out of the placenta
5. O2 diffuses into the fetal blood vessel
6. O2 diffuses into the fetal red blood cell
7. O2 binds to fetal haemoglobin (HbF)
153
Graphically, fetal haemoglobin’s high affinity for oxygen is represented by the fetal haemoglobin oxygen dissociation curve being shifted to the ___ of the adult haemoglobin curve
Left
154
Refers to the decrease in haemoglobin’s affinity for oxygen when there is an increase in carbon dioxide concentration or a decrease in blood pH (increased acidity)
Bohr shift
155
The Bohr shift is visually represented on the oxygen-haemoglobin dissociation curve as a shift to the ___
Right
156
Capillaries have the narrowest ___ of all vessens, with a maximum diameter of only about 10 micrometers
Lumen
157
Benefits of a narrow lumen (2)
1. Increased surface area
2. Slow blood flow
158
How many cells thick is the wall of a capillary?
One
159
The endothelial cells that line the lumen form a single layer of ___ cells
Flattened
160
The endothelial cells of the capillary wall secrete this coating of extracellular proteins
Basement membrane
161
Benefits of basement membranes (2)
1. Anchors the endothelial cells of the capillary wall to the surrounding tissue
2. regulates the passage of substances between the blood and tissues
162
Tiny pores that allow larger molecules to pass through the capillaries. They allow part of the blood plasma to leak out but are too small for cells to move through
Fenestrations
163
Where are fenestrated capillaries found
tissues where large volumes of tissue fluid and plasma are exchanged (such as small intestine, pancreas and kidney glomerulus)
164
Beneficial structures of arteries (3)
1. Thick wall w/ a large amount of elastic fibers and smooth muscle
2. Narrow lumen
3. No valves
165
Beneficial structures of veins (3)
1. Thin wall with small amount of elastic fibers and smooth muscle
2. Wide lumen
3. Valves
166
Layers of the artery wall (3)
1. Tunica interna
2. Tunica media
3. Tunica externa
167
Innermost layer of the artery wall that lines the lumen of the blood vessel and provides a smooth surface for blood to flow with low resistance
Tunica interna
168
Middle layer of the artery wall where the majority of elastic fibers and smooth muscle are located. The structures provide support for the vessel and change vessel diameter to regulate blood flow and blood pressure
Tunica media
169
Outermost layer of the artery wall made of connective tissue with varying amounts of elastic and collagenous fibers that attach the vessel to the surrounding tissue
Tunica externa
170
he hollow passageway through which blood flows
Lumen
171
Elastic fibers are bands of specialized proteins called ___ within the ___ ___ of the tunica ___. The amount of elastin is highest in the large, elastic arteries closest to the ___. Elastic fibers allow the artery wall to ___ and ___ with each pulse of blood from the heart, propelling the blood towards the capillaries
Elastin, extracellular matrix, media, heart, expand and recoil
172
a fibrous protein within the extracellular matrix of the tunica externa of artery walls
Collagen
173
Functions of collagen (4)
1. Provides tensile strength (the ability to withstand pressure before breaking when stretched or pulled), which allows the artery to withstand high and variable pressure without bulging (aneurysm) or rupturing
2. Maintains shape of the artery vessel
3. Anchors arteries to nearby tissues
4. Provide some elasticity for recoil of the artery wall
174
Arteries are more rounded because there are ___ collagen fibers maintaining shape
Many
175
Veins are less rounded because there are ___ collagen fibers maintaining shape
Fewer
176
a sequence of actions that generate one pump of the heart
The cardiac cycle
177
At a normal heart rate of 70 beats per minute, each cardiac cycle lasts approximately __ seconds
0.8sec
178
Factors affecting pulse rate (7)
1. Epinephrine and nervous system input
2. Age
3. Exercise
4. Temperature
5. Stress
6. Medications
7. Health conditions
179
At any given time, a significantly ___ amount of blood is found in the veins compared to arteries and capillaries
Larger
180
a physiological mechanism that aids in the circulation of blood. The thin wall of the veins allow them to be squeezed by the surrounding skeletal muscles, and they increase the pressure in the veins, forcing blood upwards towards the heart. This phenomena is most prominent in the legs
Skeletal muscle pump
181
Blockage of a blood vessel
Occlusion
182
Causes of occlusions (3)
1. Atherosclerosis
2. Thrombosis
3. Embolism
183
The accumulation of plaque in an artery
atherosclerosis
184
a clot of platelets, red blood cells, and the clotting protein called fibrin Said clot forms when a blood vessel is damaged and the clotting mechanism is activated
Thrombosis
185
A traveling blood clot that occurs when a thrombosis breaks off the vessel wall and is carried through the bloodstream where it can get stuck in smaller vessels and block blood flow
Embolism
186
the result of the reduced blood flow to the heart muscle due to a coronary occlusion. Often presents with symptoms of chest pain, shortness of breath, and fatigue
Coronary Heart Disease (CHD)
187
a leading cause of death around the world
CHD
188
Risk factors for CHD (13)
1. Hypertension
2. High cholesterol
3. Smoking
4. Obesity
5. Sedentary lifestyle
6. Genetic predisposition
7. Diet high in salt, trans fat, sugar, red meat, and processed meat
8. Alcohol
9. Family history
10. Chronic stress
11. Untreated diabetes
12. Age (prevalence increases after 35 y/o)
13. Sex (men are at increased risk)
IB Bio
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