Lithosphere
Hard shell of earth consisting of crust and topmost mantle
- covered in 70% in water
- has cracks/rifts: rocky plates (tectonic plates)
Soil
Upper layer of lithosphere (pedosphere)
- formed by the interaction of other spheres (lithosphere with hydro, atmo, bio)
- necessary for plant life
Layers of soil
Distinct layers parallel to surface ground
- Organic matter
- Surface soil (topsoil): soil containing humus and minerals (decomposing organic matter)
- Subsoil: composed of tiny rocks (sand, silt and rock) includes small minerals, tree and plants with deep roots draw nutrients here
- Substratum (fragmented parent rock): formed by the disintegration (weathering, erosion) of underlying unaltered parent rock
- Rock (unaltered parent rock): starting point for soil formation
Soil Agriculture (Necessity)
- Water soluble nutrients (Nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium)
- Appropriate pH levels (affects rate of absorption of nutrients)
- Appropriate amount of water (intake of nutrients requires water)
- Oxygen (cellular respiration)
Soil Agriculture (Problems)
Loss of soil fertility (depletion):
- Modern farm machinery (compacts soil - prevents rain and deprives oxygen)
- use of pesticides (contaminates ecosystems with toxins)
- Deforestation (destroys root network that prevents wind blowing away topsoil and organic matter that would have disintegrated)
Permafrost
Ground frozen (below 0) for at least 2 years (found in polar regions and at high altitudes)
A combination of soil, rocks and sand that are held together by ice
Upper layers thaws briefly for growing season
Problems with permafrost
- Damage to house/roads,etc
- Greenhouse gases released by thawing of frozen organic carbon (CO2 & CH4)
- Could unfreeze ancient bacteria and viruses in ice and soil
Permafrost and Global Warming
Permafrost traps methane gas melts — Methane gas released — more heat trapped in atmosphere — temperature increases
Fossil Fuels
Coal (terrestrial animals), oil (marine animals) and natural gases
- cheap, easy to store and transport
- non renewable, GHG emissions (acid rain, CH4)
Thermal power plant: Transforms fossil fuel energy to mechanical or electrical
Nuclear energy
Uranium
- small quantity = large amounts of energy and no GHG emission
- radioactive waste and emission, and material and enviro are radioactive for years
Nuclear: Power Plant Bonds of atoms are broken (fission) converted into electrical
Geothermal energy
Energy that comes from the earth (fluid circulation)
- renewable energy, no GHG and reduce heating cost
- $$$ than traditional and only available in some spots
Hydrosphere
Earths outer layer fo water in any state
(97.5% saltwater, 2.5% freshwater — 79% frozen glaciers and 21% lakes and rivers)
Water cycle
Every (Evaporation) Creature (Condensation) Pretends (Precipitation) to (Transpiration) Ignore (Infiltration) Great (Ground water flow) Roars (Runoff)
Watersheds
Area of land in which inland waters (freshwater bodies on the surface) drain into same large body
Catchment or drainage basin
Manage of Watershed
- Topography: slope and shape of land
- Geology: type of rock found on land
- Climate/Precipitation: Frequency of rain or snow)
- Vegetation: Rainwater runoff is slowed by wooded areas
- Agricultural, industrial and urban development: structures can prevent water flow
Ocean Temperature
- Depth
a) Mixed layers (higher than 200m): heated by sun
b) Thermocline (lower than 200m): no solar energy, cold, transition zone (decrease in temp as depth)
c) Deepwater (lower than 1000m): cold and very dark - Seasons: ocean loses some heat in winter (less pronounced than land)
- Latitude: warmer equator than temperate zones
Colder water: density increases, sinks
Warmer water: density decreases, rises
Ocean Salinity
Measure of the amount of salt dissolved in liquid (g/L) salt doesn’t evaporate
Salinity increases, density increases, sink (35g/L)
Salinity decreases, density decreases, rise (1g/L)
Ocean current
Movement of seawater in certain directions
- Surface: caused by winds, moves horizontally, first 400m
- Subsurface (deep): caused by variation in density between layers of water, lower 800m
Thermohaline Circulation
Surface and subsurface current (forces nutrient water upwards)
Equator warm up — poles cold sinks
Cryosphere
Consists of all the frozen water on Earth’s surface
Pack Ice
Ice floating on ocean near poles, weakening due to global warming threatening life species (habitat)
Melting = high freshwater in oceans = water less saline = slows/stops currents
Glaciers
Mass of ice on land (compressed snow), freshwater
Glacier melt = ice fall into water = water level rises
Melting = high freshwater in oceans = water less saline = slows/stops currents
Icebergs
Glaciers breaks off 90% underwater
Hydraulic (hydroelectric) energy
Moving water energy (turbines, dams)
- renewable, no GHG (mostly)
- flooding of ecosystem, mercury contamination, not available in some areas
Water turbines: connected to generators that convert the mechanical energy to electrical
