1
Q
Viscosity of blood
A
- blood is 4-5 more thick than water
- depends upon the amount of dissolved substances in the blood relative to the amount of fluid.
- increases if amount of substances increases or if amount of fluid decreases
2
Q
Temperature of blood
A
- blood is about 1 degree celsius higher than measured body temperature
3
Q
pH of blood
A
- around 7.35-7.45
- plasma proteins have a three-dimensional shape that is dependent upon H+ concentration
4
Q
hemopoiesis
A
- formation and development of formed elements (blood cells)
5
Q
erythropoiesis overview
A
- erythrocytes form in red bone marrow in response to erythropoietin
- circulate in blood for about 120 days
- aged erythrocytes are phagocytized by macrophages in the liver in spleen
6
Q
erythropoiesis process
A
- start with a hemocytoblast (blood stem cell)
- goes through myeloid line and becomes a reticulocyte
7
Q
reticulocyte
A
- have no organelles except some ribosomes
- continues to produce hemoglobin through protein synthesis
- mature while circulating in blood vessels
8
Q
leukopoiesis
A
- granulocyte, monocyte, and lymphocyte maturation
- all three types of granulocytes are derived from a myeloid stem cell stimulated by multi-CSF and GM-CSF to form a progenitor cell
9
Q
granulocyte line
A
- develops when the progenitor cell forms a myeloblast under the influence of G-CSF.
- differentiate into one of three types of granulocytes
10
Q
monocyte line
A
- develops when the progenitor cell forms a mono blast under the influence of M-CSF>
- forms a promonocyte that differentiates and matures into a monocyte
11
Q
lymphocyte line
A
- derived from lymphoid stem cells
- differentiate into B-lymphoblasts and T-lymphoblasts
- mature into lymphocytes
12
Q
thrombopoiesis
A
- formation of platelets
- from myeloid stem cell, committed cell becomes a megakaryoblast
- matures under influence of thrombopoietin to form a megakaryocyte
- produce long extensions called proplatelets
13
Q
proplatelets
A
extend through blood vessel wall and are sliced into platelets
14
Q
molecular structure of hemoglobin
A
- consists of four molecules called globes
- two are called alpha chains and the other two are beta chains
- all contain a heme group composed of a porphyrin ring with an iron ion in its center
- oxygen binds to Fe2+ in heme groups for transport in the blood
- Has four Fe2+ and is capable of binding four molecules of oxygen
15
Q
recycling and elimination of erythrocyte components
A
- phagocytized by macrophages in the liver and spleen
- three components of hemoglobin are separated
16
Q
fate of globulin proteins
A
- broken down into amino acids and enter the blood
- some may be used to make new erythrocytes
17
Q
fate of iron
A
- stored in liver and attached to ferritin and hemosiderin
- transported by transferrin into red bone marrow as needed for erythrocyte production
- small amounts are lost in feces, sweat, and urine as well as injury and menstruation
18
Q
fate of heme without iron
A
- converted to biliverdin then bilirubin
19
Q
bilirubin
A
- transported to liver and then released as a component of bile in small intestine
- converted to urobilinogen in small intestine
20
Q
urobilinogen
A
- some is absorbed back into the blood and converted to urobilin and excreted in the urine
- most continues to the large intestines where it is modified and expelled in feces.
21
Q
ABO blood typing
A
- ABO blood group consists of surface antigens called A and B
- the presence or absence of A antigen or B antigen determines the ABO blood type.
22
Q
Type A blood
A
- erythrocytes with surface antigen A only.
- produces anti-B antibodies
23
Q
Type B blood
A
- erythrocytes with surface antigen B only
- produces anti-A antibodies
24
Q
Type AB blood
A
- has erythrocytes having both surface antigens A and B
- produces neither anti-A nor anti-B antibodies
25
Type O blood
- has erythrocytes with no surface antigen
| - produces anti-A and anti-B antibodies
26
Rh blood typing
- determined by presence or absence of Rh surface antigen
- when Rh factor is present, the individual is Rh positive
- antibodies to Rh factor (anti-D antibodies) apear in blood only when an Rh negative person is exposed to Rh positive blood
27
hemolytic disease of newborns
- occurs due to Rh negative mother
- during first pregnancy, if the mother has an Rh+ fetus, the D antigen is introduced to the mother's blood
- between pregnancies anti-D antibodies are produced in the mother
- During the second pregnancy, anti-D antibodies attack Rh+ fetal erythrocytes
28
prevention of hemolytic disease of newborns
give the pregnant Rh- woman special immunoglobulins called RhoGAM
29
primary lymphatic structures
- involved in formation and maturation of lymphocytes
- thymus
- red bone marrow
30
secondary lymphatic structures
- house lymphocytes and other immune cells following their formation
- where an immune response is initiated
- Tonsils
- lymph nodes
- Spleen
- MALT
31
Flow of lymph through body
- driving force to move fluids into lymphatic capillaries is an increase in hydrostatic pressure within interstitial space
- flows to larger lymphatic vessels, trunks, and ducts.
- ultimately empties into the blood circulation through venous
- anchoring filaments linking endothelial cells to surrounding structures prevent vessel collapse
- pressure of lymph inside vessel forces intercellular opening of capillary wall to close with lymph inside
- lymph flows toward the heart
32
right lymphatic duct
- receives lymph from lymphatic trunks that drain
- right side of head and neck
- right upper limb
- right side of the thorax
33
thoracic duct
- larger of the two
- drains lymph from remaining areas of the body
- left side of head and neck
- upper left limb
- left thorax
- all of abdomen
- both lower limbs
34
structure of lymph nodes
- small, encapsulated organs located along pathways of lymph vessels
- numerous afferent lymphatic vessels that bring lymph into a lymph node, but only one efferent lymphatic vessel
35
trabeculae
- composed of dense irregular connective tissue that both encapsulates the node and sends internal extensions into it.
- provides a pathway through which blood vessels and nerves may enter the lymph node
36
cortex
- composed of multiple lymphatic nodules
- contains multiple nodules (macrophages and dendritic cells)
- germinal layer
- mantle zone
- both cortex and medulla contain tiny open channels called lymphatic sinuses
37
germinal layer
- houses both proliferating B-lymphocytes and some macrophages
- surrounded by mantle zone
38
mantle zone
- contains T-lymphocytes, macrophages, and dendritic cells
39
medulla
- has strands of connective tissue fibers that support the cells in the cortex - medullary cords
40
medullary sinuses
- open channels lined by macrophages
41
function of lymph nodes
- filter lymph
| - where immune response is initiated against a substance in the lymph
42
function of thymus
- site of T-lymphocyte maturation and differentiation
43
function of spleen
- filters blood
- where immune response is initiated against a substance in the blood
- removes aged erythrocytes and platelets
- serve as erythrocyte and platelet reservoirs
44
white pulp
- clusters of T-cells, B-cells, and macrophages surrounded by a central artery
45
red pulp
- contains erythrocytes, platelets, macrophages, and B-cells
46
splenic cords
- cells and reticular connective tissue in red pulp
47
splenic sinusoids
- very permeable capillaries
48
function of tonsils
- protect against inhaled and ingested substances
| - contain lymphatic nodules
49
tonsillar crypts
- invaginations that trap material
50
Function of MALT
- protest mucosal membranes against foreign substances
- located in GI, respiratory, genital, and urinary tracts
- prominent in small intestines, especially ileum
51
peyer patches
- large collections of lymphatic nodules that form bulges in ileum wall
52
innate immunity
- immediate response to wide array of substances without previous exposure
- we are born with this
- includes barriers of skins and mucosal membranes that prevent entry, as well as nonspecific cellular and molecular internal defenses
53
adaptive immunity
- delayed, powerful responses to specific antigen
- involves specific T-lymphocytes and B-lymphocytes, which respond to different foreign substances to which we are exposed during our lifetime
54
Neutrophils and macrophages
- phagocytic cells - engulf and destroy microbes
| - function to destroy infectious agents through a process that involves a lysosome and a respiratory burst
55
dendritic cells
- degraded residues may be released from cell by exocytosis and/or displayed to other immune cells
56
basophil and mast cell
- pro inflammatory chemical-secreting cells
- basophils circulate
- mast cells reside in connective tissue, mucosal membranes, and some organs
- release chemicals that enhance inflammation - heparin and histamine
57
heparin
- anticoagulant
58
histamine
- increases permeability and vasodilation
59
NK cells
- apoptosis-initiating cell
- immune surveillance - patrol the body destroying wide variety of unhealthy, unwanted cells
- initiates apoptosis through release of perforin and granzyme
60
Eosinophils
- parasite destroying cells
- destroys multicellular organisms by targeting parasites
- participates in immune response of allergy and asthma
- phagocytosis of antigen-antibody complexes
61
interferon
- nonspecific defense mechanism against the spread of any infection
- synthesize enzymes that interfere with viral replication protecting uninfected cells
- stimulates NK cells
- stimulates macrophages (phagocytosizes infected cell)
62
complement
- targets bacteria; composed of about 30 plasma proteins
| - activated through enzyme cascade in response to pathogen
63
classical pathway
- complement protein binds to antibody-bound foreign substance
- requires antibody complex. antigen binding site at the ends
- binds to erythrocyte. complement constant region is where it binds to RBC
- transported to liver and spleen where macrophages strip off complex
- unbound erythrocyte continues to circulate
64
alternative pathway
- complement binds directly to surface of pathogen
| - opsonization and cytolysis
65
opsonization
- the binding of complement to a portion of the bacteria that enhances phagocytosis.
- makes it more likely that a substance is identified and engulfed by a phagocytic cell
66
cytolysis
- various complement proteins trigger direct killing of a target by forming a membrane attack complex
- the MAC protein channel compromises the cell's integrity, allowing an influx of fluid that causes lysis of the cell
67
MHC I
- basically shows what is inside of the cell
| - all nucleated cells have MHC I on the surface
68
MHC I of healthy cell
- show self antigen
| - ignored or tolerated by immune system under normal conditions
69
MHC I of infected cell
- combine with foreign antigen peptide fragments and is displayed.
- communicates with CTLs and signals for destruction of cells.
70
MHC II
- phagocytize exogenous antigen,
- combine with that foreign antigen
- fuse with membrane and display foreign antigen
- complex provides for communication with helper T cells which stimulate the immune response
71
Formation of T lymphocytes
- formed in red bone marrow
- pre-T-lymphocytes travel to the thymus and mature in the thymus.
- Possess a unique TCR receptor and initially both CD4 and CD8 proteins
72
formation of B lymphocytes
- formed in red bone marrow
| - naive B-lymphocytes don't have to mature
73
selection of T-lymphocytes
- positive selection
- negative selection
- 2% survive
74
positive selection
- selects for the ability of T-cells to bind MHC molecules
75
negative selection
- test ability of T-lymphocyte to NOT bind self-antigen (self-tolerance)
76
Differentiation of T-cells
- Helper T-cell - selective loss of CD8 protein
- Cytotoxic T-cell - selective loss of CD4 protein
- leave thymus as naive T-cells because they haven't been exposed to foreign antigen yet
77
Response of helper T-cells
- synthesis and release of various cytokines that regulate the cells of the immune system (both adaptive and innate)
78
response of cytotoxic T-cells
- release of cytotoxic chemicals induces apoptosis of abnormal cells
79
Stimulation of helper T cells
- CD4 binds with MHC II molecules of antigen presenting cells
- TCR interacts with antigen within MHC II
- Helper T cells release IL-2 which stimulates more helper T cells
- activated helper T-cells proliferate and differentiate to form a clone of activated memory helper T-cells
80
stimulation of Cytotoxic T cells
- CD8 binds with MHC I of infected cell
- TCR interacts with antigen within MHC I
- IL-2 released from activated helper T-cell stimulates CTLs
- activated CTLs proliferate and differentiate to form a clone of activated and memory CTLs
81
structure of antibody
- Y-shaped protein that includes two variable regions that bind antigen and one constant region that determines its biological activity
82
variable region
- located at the ends of the arms of the antibody and contain the antigen binding site
- most antibodies have two antigen-binding sites
- binds the antigen through weak intermolecular forces
83
constant region
- Fc region
| - the same or nearly the same in structure for antibody molecules of a given class
84
functions of antigen-binding site
- neutralization
- agglutination
- precipitation
85
neutralization
- antibody covers biological active portion of microbe or toxin
86
agglutination
- antibody cross-links cells forming a clump
87
precipitation
- antibody cross-links circulating particles, forming an insoluble antigen-antibody complex.
- precipitate out of bodily fluids
88
functions of constant region
- complement fixation
- opsonization
- activation of NK cells
89
complement fixation
- Fc region of antibody binds complement proteins to activate by the classical pathway
90
opsonization
- Fc region of antibody binds to receptors of phagocytic cells, triggering phagocytosis
91
activation of NK cells
- Fc region of antibody binds to an NK cell, triggering release of cytotoxic chemicals called antibody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity (ADCC)
92
Stimulation of B-lyphocytes
- free antigen binds to B-cell receptor
- B-cells engulf and present the antigen to the helper T-cell on MHC II
- IL-4 is released from activated helper T-cells which stimulates B-cells
93
response of activated B-cells
- activated B-cells proliferate and differentiate to form a clone of plasma cells (that produce antibodies) and memory B-lymphocytes
- recognize and respond to antigens outside of cells, such as antigens of viral particles, bacteria, bacterial toxins, or yeast spores
94
immunologic memory
- mediated by prolonged antibody levels
95
primary response to antigen exposure
- limited numbers of helper T-cells, CTLs, and B-cells recognize the antigen
- generally, a lag time occurs between the body's initial exposure to the antigen and the physical contact with lymphocytes required to develop an immune response
- may extend 3 to 6 days
- the amount of serum antibody levels is low and gradually decreases over time
96
secondary response to antigen exposure
- the memory cells make contact with the antigen more rapidly and produce a more powerful response.
- a much shorter lag phase occurs
- the pathogen is typically eliminated even before disease symptoms develop
- antibody levels rise more rapidly, with a greater proportion of IgG antibodies. This higher level of IgG production may continue for longer periods
97
active immunity
- develops in response to direct encounter with a pathogen or foreign substance that results in production of memory cells
98
naturally-acquired active immunity
- develops after exposure to antigens of an infectious agent in the environment
99
artificially-acquired active immunity
- develops after administration of an antigen, usually through a vaccination
- these activities stimulate an immune response and promote immunity to that particular antigen
100
passive immunity
- produced by transfer of antibodies from another source
101
naturally-acquired passive immunity
- conferred by transfer of maternal antibodies across placenta or in breast milk
102
artificially-acquired passive immunity
- conferred by transfer of serum containing antibodies against a specific pathogen
- ex. antibodes to a poisonous snake venom (antivenin) is transferred to an individual who has been bitten by that species of snake.
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