1
Q
7 themes of child development
A
nature/ nurture, the active child, continuity vs. discontinuity, mechanisms of change, the sociocultural context, individual differences, research and child welfare
2
Q
what is sociocultural context
A
the social, cultural, and historical environment in which a person lives and interacts (e.g. norms, values, beliefs, etc.)
3
Q
Lloyd Morrisett
A
wanted to provide high quality education to disadvantaged preschool children, where sesame street came from
4
Q
how can leading questions influence pre-schoolers courtroom testimony
A
asking less leading questions increases accuracy
5
Q
romanian adoption study
A
children adopted from loveless romanian orphanage, and the later they were adopted the worse the effects on their physical health, social behaviour, and intellect. Generally could overcome if adopted before 6 months
6
Q
Individual differences intelligence study (Dweck)
A
children who were told learning enhances intelligence had improved grades, whereas those who thought it was fixed had no improvement
7
Q
reliability
A
consistency (interrater or test-retest)
8
Q
questionnaires and interview
A
questionnaires: quick and straightforward
interviews: more tailored, but both can be biased
9
Q
naturalistic observation
A
presence of researcher doesn’t influence behaviour, but some behaviours only occasional
10
Q
structured observation
A
more control and direct comparisons. But, less extensive and less everyday info
11
Q
correlational designs
A
variables of interest can’t always be manipulated
12
Q
experimental designs
A
random assignment and experimental control
13
Q
cross-sectional designs
A
compares children of different ages by studying them at around the same time
14
Q
longitudinal designs
A
follow same children over substantial period, not super practical
15
Q
microgenetic designs
A
study a change as it is occurring (study same kids often, ex. counting strategy)
16
Q
conception
A
union of sperm and ovum
17
Q
zygote
A
fertilized egg cell, cell division is exponential. Hollow sphere with inner cell mass by fourth day
18
Q
developmental process of zygote
A
mitosis –> cell migration –> cell differentiation –> apoptosis
19
Q
embryo development (3-8 weeks)
A
major systems and internal organs begin, cephalocaudal development, neural tube development
20
Q
cephalocaudal development
A
organ structures near the head develop first
21
Q
neural tube
A
brain and spinal cord: Neural groove fuses together at the centre then outward, except for one part still open at the top
22
Q
fetus development (week 9 onwards)
A
all major organs present, development of lower half (16 weeks), lungs and heart developed enough for possible survival (28 weeks)
23
Q
fetus movement
A
Wiggling/ kicking (associated with later self-regulation)
Thumb-sucking, hiccuping, burping (practicing eating)
Swallowing fluid (promotes digestive system and palatal development)
Cycling between activity and rest
24
Q
fetus touching
A
tactile stimulation, sensory info in inner ear for balance
25
fetus seeing
minimal, but predispositions to look towards facelike stimuli
26
fetus tasting
Can detect and discriminate flavours in amniotic fluid and can have flavour preferences
What is learned prenatally influences preferences after birth
27
fetus smelling
can smell by inhaling fluid (later)
28
fetus hearing
Sound may stimulate brain development
Pregnant parent’s voice, speech versus music (ex. cat in the hat during pregnancy)
29
how did the cat in the hat experiment work after hearing it in utero
newborns were fitted with a special pacifier-headset device
The pattern in which the babies sucked on the pacifier determined what book was read
Babies tended to suck in the pattern that let them hear the familiar story: learning from experience
30
teratogens
Potentially harmful external agent that can cause damage during prenatal development. Individual differences, but overall cumulative impact
31
fetal programming
effects longterm, may not show up right away
Ex. babies with scarce nutrition in utero were more likely to be obese later
32
sleeper effect
impacts from teratogens stay hidden until later in life
33
sensitive period
time during which a developing organism is most sensitive to the effects of external factors
Different systems = different periods
34
dose-response relationship
greater exposure = worse outcomes
35
recreational drugs as teratogens
alcohol (brain injury, FASD), marijuana (learning problems), tobacco (lower birthweight, SIDS, cancer, ADHD, lower IQ)
36
medications as teratogens
accutane, antidepressants (inconclusive), thalidomide (anti nausea --> limb defects if taken at 4-6 weeks)
37
environmental pollutants
act in combination (ex. Grassy narrows mercury in water)
38
birth experience
oxytocin causes contractions. Non-painful squeezing on baby forces fluid out of lungs, deforms head to fit out
39
newborn infant sleep
REM around 50% of sleep, helps with visual brain development
40
newborn infant crying
adaptive communication, peaks at 6-8 weeks
41
consoling crying baby
swaddling, quick/ calm response
42
colic
excessive, inconsolable crying by a young infant for no apparent reason
1 in 10 infants, typically ends around 3 months
No long-term effects on infant
43
miscarriage
15% of pregnancies, 25-50% of women experience at some point, 1% recurrent miscarriage
44
infant mortality
death during first year, improving worldwide (but higher for black infants)
45
multiple-risk models
Risks often co occur and are cumulative
Various domains affected (e.g. attachment, language development, well-being)
Poverty is a developmental hazard
(Multiple risks strongly related to lower SES)
46
structural racism
Behaviours and beliefs that harm specific racial and ethnic groups
47
developmental resilience
successful development despite multiple and seemingly overwhelming developmental hazards
48
how do resilient children overcome risks
often have personal characteristics and responsive care from someone
49
maternal factors on prenatal development
age, nutrition, disease, emotional state
50
parent's genotype --> child's genotype
Children inherit their genotype from their parents
Variability explained by random assortment, crossing over
51
child's genotype --> child's phenotype
Just because you have certain genes, not necessarily expressed (often have alleles with different dominance patterns)
Only ~1% codes for proteins
Regulator genes switch other genes “on”/ “off” (only expressed if “on”). Can be influenced by environmental factors (e.g. thalidomide throws off regulator genes during sensitive period of limb development)
52
polygenic
determined by more than one gene
53
child's environment --> child's phenotype (MAOA)
MAO-A gene codes for MAOA, an enzyme that regulates mood, aggression, etc.
When low MAOA combined with history of maltreatment → antisocial behaviour skyrockets
Without maltreatment, people with low MAOA are no different
54
child's phenotype --> child's environment
Children directly impact the world around them
Behaviour will impact how others behave towards them
Later in childhood/ adulthood, decide which environments to engage with
55
child's environment --> child's genotype
epigenetic
Doesn’t change genotype, just how it’s expressed
Changes in expression can be passed down through generations
56
epigenetics
study of stable changes in gene expression that are mediated by the environment
57
family studies
Look at blood relatives and see how much they resemble each other on a specific trait
- Greater similarity in related than unrelated = more genetic influence
Look at degree of relatedness as well
- If a trait has a genetic component, siblings should be more alike than cousins (but also has influence from environment)
Family members should be more alike than non family members
58
twin studies
Look to see how much identical vs. fraternal twins resemble each other on a specific trait
Identical twins more similar than fraternal indicates more influence from genes, and less of a difference indicates it’s more likely influenced by the environment
59
assumption used during twin studies
all twins share similar environments, so differences must be due to differing genotypes (not perfect)
60
why isn't the twins assumption perfect
MZ twins likely treated more similar than DZ twins. Whether or not MZ twins shared a placenta can change how much the prenatal environment was common
61
Adoption studies
Look to see how much adopted children resemble their biological vs. adoptive parents
Greater similarity to biological? Stronger influence of genotype
Greater similarity to adoptive? Stronger influence of environment
62
neurogenesis
proliferation of neurons through cell division; begins weeks after conception
After creation, they migrate to ultimate location
Grow and differentiate according to their role
63
synaptogenesis
formation of synapses with other neurons, making trillions of connections
64
synaptic pruning
synapses that are rarely activated are eliminated
Only useful pathways are preserved
65
plasticity
ability and capacity to be changed by experience
66
experience-expectant plasticity
wiring of brain from experiences it has evolved to expect and learn from (e.g. language, vision)
67
experience-dependent plasticity
the ongoing rewiring of neural connections following one’s unique life experience (how your brain changes as you move through life)
68
sensitive period for brain development
Window of development in which a brain must receive certain kinds of stimulation to develop as it normally would
Ex. born with cataracts, worse vision even after removed because brain hasn’t developed with normal visual stimulation
- Regions that are unused how they’re expected to be used can be reassigned by the brain
69
secular trends in growth/ maturation
e.g. taller now, menstruating earlier
70
food neophobia
unwilling to eat unfamiliar foods, but helps if repeatedly introduced
71
what is cognitive development
Study of thinking, problem-solving, and information-processing across the life-course
72
what is a theory
a well-supported explanation of an aspect of human behaviour, based on a hypothesis and supported by evidence
73
what can a psychological theory do
Describe a behaviour/ phenomenon accurately
Allow for accurate predictions of future behaviour
- Used to help scientists, practitioners, policy makers, etc.
74
Piaget's core ideas
active learners (constructivist view), learn through exploration, intrinsically motivated to learn
75
Piaget's stage theory
children at diff. ages think in qualitatively diff. ways, characteristics at each stage influence thinking, can fluctuate at transitions between stages, all follow same stage pattern
76
assimilation
Interpreting new info/ experiences using existing concepts and knowledge structures
77
accommodation
Adjusting understanding of the world in response to new information and experiences
78
equilibration
Balancing assimilation with accommodation to create a stable understanding of the world
Existing knowledge structure is working as it should, helping us predict and make sense of new experiences
79
disequilibration
new info is challenging our knowledge structure
Recognize current ideas need updating → motivates development
80
sensorimotor (birth - 2)
learning about their bodies, the world, and rules that govern interactions (ex. object permanence, A-not-B error)
81
A-not-B error
Object originally hidden behind A multiple times, then observed it go behind B. However, infant still reached for A (perseverative error)
82
preoperational (2 - 7)
Children start to become able to represent their experiences in language, mental imagery, and symbolic thought. Limitations: egocentric, conservation understanding
83
symbolic representation
using one thing to stand for another
84
centration
tendency to focus on only one prominent feature of an object or event (preoperational)
85
concrete operational (7 - 12)
Increasingly able to reason logically about concrete objects and events (can do conservation tasks, take others’ POVs)
Struggle with hypothetical, abstract, and systematic thinking
86
Piaget's pendulum problem
what affects how long it takes for the pendulum to go once around? concrete operational children try a few combinations and come to faulty conclusions. formal operational more strategic
87
formal operational (12+)
Can now reason about hypothetical situations, entertain multiple perspectives, engage in careful systematic thinking (not everybody reaches this stage and uses it consistently)
88
counterfactual reasoning
ability to entertain hypothetical “what if” questions that run counter to facts about what actually happened or what typically happens (ex. What would happen if feathers could break glass?). Formal operational children can do this
89
kind of close counterfactuals
almost, easily could have (harder to understand)
90
limitations of Piaget
Describes behaviour, but doesn’t explain why changes occur
Overlooked role of social learning
Description of children’s thinking at each stage not always consistent (underestimated)
91
information processing theories
children as "little computers"
Even simple tasks involve a chain of mini cognitive tasks that build on each other
Gradual step by step improvement in different skills
Breaking down children’s thinking and behaviour into a series of structures and operations organized in a hierarchy
92
hardware/ software updates in information processing theories
How much info they can juggle at once
How quickly they can complete operations
What strategies they use to organize info
93
Component processes of information processing
memory and attention
94
encoding
Taking in information from the world and putting it in a form that can be stored in memory, requires some level of attention
95
working memory
System that involves actively attending to, maintaining, and processing information
- Has limited capacity
- Improves dramatically across childhood w/ brain development and better strategies
- not all info here gets stored
96
rehearsal
repeating info to maintain it in working memory
97
selective attention
focus on specific aspect of stimuli to organize info
98
long-term memory
System that can store information for retrieval long after it initially left your working memory
- Facts, opinions, ideas, procedures, etc.
99
executive function
Set of cognitive processes associated with the intentional regulation of one’s behaviour
Consciously taking charge or your attention and actions in pursuit of your goals
100
Eriksen Flanker task
tap according to direction of centre arrow (inhibition)
101
inhibition
ability to override reactive or tempting behaviours in order to facilitate more deliberate actions
102
cognitive flexibility
ability to adjust your thinking, consider multiple perspectives, reinterpret events or stimuli
103
dimensional change card sort
sorting by colour then shape (cognitive flexibility)
104
selective attention
ability to intentionally focus on the information that is most relevant to the current goal, which also means ignoring irrelevant info
105
overlapping waves theory
emphasizes the variability of children’s thinking with the development of problem solving
106
core knowledge theories
children as "products of evolution"
Innate knowledge in certain domains of special importance (ex. Physical laws, social processes, biological categories)
Domain-specific learning mechanisms for rapidly and effortlessly acquiring information in those domains
107
how does domain specific information help with learning
Allows for rapid and often effortless learning in important areas humans need to survive/ thrive (experience-expectant)
108
nativism
Infants have substantial innate knowledge in domains of special evolutionary significance (doesn’t need to be taught or learned)
109
Elizabeth Spelke core-knowledge systems
Properties of inanimate objects and their interactions, minds and intentional behaviour, numbers and counting (basic numerical reasoning), geometry and spatial knowledge
110
Wynn bear experiment (early sense of numbers)
One bear, then covered, then other placed behind it → when three appeared, infants were surprised (longer looking time)
111
Noam Chomsky nativism view on language
Languages vary in their surface features, but all follow grammatical rules (nouns, verbs, etc. and how they’re organized)
Children master these basic rules early and effortlessly without direct instruction or conscious awareness
112
Language acquisition device
Specialized learning mechanism for mastering grammar, unique to language
113
Constructivism (Nativism +)
As they age, children build increasingly complex understanding of the world by combining innate knowledge with subsequent experiences
They have basic innate knowledge, and use this as a starting point to construct more complex knowledge structures about the world as they learn through their lived experiences
114
sociocultural theories
children as "social learners"
Children’s cognitive development is guided by their communication and interaction with others (Lev Vygotsky)
115
importance of guided participation
Knowledgeable individuals organizing activities in ways that allow less knowledgeable people to learn
With assistance, learners can think, solve problems, develop skills at a higher level than they could alone
116
intersubjectivity
social learning process where cognitive perspectives of the teacher and learner align to build a shared understanding
117
joint attention
social partners intentionally focus on a common referent in the external environment
Established through pointing, vocalizations, gaze following, exchanging looks
118
social referencing
using another person's reactions and expression to guide one’s learning/ behaviour
119
social scaffolding
Providing children with a temporary framework that allows them to think and achieve at a higher level than they could manage on their own
120
zone of proximal development (Vysotsky)
range of tasks a person can't complete independently but can accomplish with support
121
autism and social communication
Differences in social motivation/ attention and information processing, difficulty in coordinating attention between stimuli and another person, challenges interpreting social cues, neurodevelopmental factors
122
dynamic systems theory
children as "self-organizing systems"
How change occurs over varying time periods in complex systems
Children are well-integrated systems with many subsystems that work together to determine behaviour
123
development in dynamic systems theory
process of constant change in response to:
Current situation
Child’s immediate past history
Child’s longer-term history in similar situations
124
what does dynamic systems theory emphasize
Children are innately motivated to explore the environment (Piaget)
Children have a precise way of problem-solving (information-processing)
Infants and toddlers display early competence (core competence)
Other people are essential in the formative influence of development (sociocultural)
125
bidirectionality of actions and cognition
need cognition to act, and actions influence cognition
126
self organiztion to adapt to changing environment
Involves integrating attention, memory, emotions, and actions
127
variation as a mechanism of change
use of different behaviours to pursue the same goal (e.g. getting down a ramp)
128
selection as a mechanism of change
increasingly frequent choice of relatively successful behaviours for reaching goals
129
constructivist
children construct knowledge from experience
130
basic processes of memory development
associating, recognizing, recalling, generalizing, encoding
131
content knowledge
knowing more about a topic makes it easier to remember new info about that topic
132
why do children often fail to plan
requires inhibiting desire to solve immediately, overly optimistic
133
snakes and ladders application
improved children's number sense (information processing theories)
134
pilosas story application
understood natural selection with pilosas story and could generalize the logic, despite essentialist challenges (core-knowledge theories)
135
community of learners strategy
children learned separately and then brought their knowledge together to solve a problem (sociocultural theories)
136
arm bells and velcro reaching application
reaching of preterm infants improved more with the help of arm bells and velcro (dynamic systems theories)
137
preferential looking paradigms
studying visual attention in infants using implicit measures (looking time at each object). Longer looking time means they can tell a difference and we assume they have a preference
138
habituation
decrease in response to repeated or continued stimulation
139
dishabituation
a new stimulus rekindles interest following habituation
140
habituation paradigms
use stimuli like colour, shapes, sounds, etc. to observe habituation and dishabituation in infants.
141
what does evidence of habituation prove infants can do
they can see, can control their eyes, can recognize objects
142
sensation
detection and processing of basic information from the external world (sensory organs --> brain regions)
143
perception
how we organize, interpret, and make sense of incoming info. Build on our subjective understanding and mental representations, and can differ from person to person (e.g. optical illusions)
144
vision in infancy
very poor vision initially with low visual acuity and poor contrast sensitivity. Adult-like vision by around 8 months
145
visual acuity
sharpness of visual discrimination
146
testing visual acuity with paddles
show two paddles to infant, compares stripes to plain grey and notice when they can no longer tell the difference
147
colour perception in infancy
little evidence of colour perception in first month, but identical to adults by two months
148
categorical discrimination in colour perception
by 5 months: brain responds to shift between colour categories but not within categories that we can tell
149
fNIRS equipment to study colour perception
can record changes in brain activity in response to changes in colour of stimuli presented
150
visual scanning
not smooth until 4 months. Go from attending to edges --> finer details
151
why is visual control so important
allows infants to control what they attend to --> changes what they learn from
152
infant face perception
most important source of social information, sensitive to configuration (e.g. top-heavy)
153
perceptual narrowing with faces
get better at discriminating kinds of faces they most often see (ex. other-race effect)
154
cost of perceptual narrowing
we become so specialized that we struggle with less familiar stimuli
155
perceptual constancy
perception that objects are constant in size, shape, colour, etc. even though retinal image is changing
156
cubes study for perceptual constancy
babies got used to smaller cube A, then looked longer at new cube B even when retinal image was the same
157
perception with uniform movement of rod
assumed unbroken rod was behind the box
158
depth perception
need to interpret a 2D retinal image as 3D representation
159
optical expansion
cue in which an approaching object occludes increasingly more of its background (one month olds can blink in response)
160
binocular disparity
use difference between the image of an object in each eye to calculate depth (can do at 4 months)
161
monocular depth cues
relative size, interposition (in front/ behind), texture gradient (can do at 7 months)
162
auditory localization with infants
can turn their heads toward sounds if played directly on either side
163
binaural disparity
use info from both ears to locate sounds (differences in timing/ intensity). Harder with smaller baby head
164
intermodal perception
combining sensory info from multiple modalities into one cohesive perceptual experience
165
music perception of infants
preference for consonant sounds regardless prior exposure, preference for infant-directed singing. Infants better than adults at detecting within key change
166
infants integrating visual and auditory
can do by 4 months, ex. matching video to audio they hear (even with abstract connection)
167
McGurk effect
integrate lip movements when processing speech can alter perception (hear ba, see ga, conclude da)
168
rooting reflex
turning head and opening mouth in the direction of touch
169
moro reflec
startle, arms shoot back and come back in
170
sucking/ swallowing reflex
oral response when the roof of the mouth is stimulated
171
grasping reflex
closing fingers around an object pressed in palm
172
tonic neck
arm on side that head is turned to extends
173
stepping reflex
stepping feet when held upright against solid surface
174
2-5 months major milestones
supporting self while prone and stationary
175
4-10 months major milestones
sitting and standing with support
176
9.5-14 months major milestones
standing and walking independently
177
gross motor development impact on interactions
new motor accomplishments change how parents interact with child
178
fine motor development
reaching, holding, pincer grasp --> new way of interacting with environment
179
why aren't motor milestones universal
vary as a function of individual differences (ex. culture)
180
WEIRD
western, educated, industrialized, rich, democratic. Findings not always as universal as they claim, WEIRD often outliers due to resources available
181
how does being surrounded by lines (industrialized) shape visual illusions
more susceptible to arrow illusion
182
factors influencing motor development
improving strength, posture control, balance, perception, body proportions, motivations
183
affordances
possible actions afforded by an object or situation
184
depth perception checkered drop off
older infants avoid drop off, but there are learning curves for new crawlers and new walkers (evidence against fear of heights)
185
scale errors
attempted to do something with object that's way too small
186
grasp errors
integration error where they try to pick up 2D object
187
media errors
integration error where they try to interact with characters on screen
188
rational learning
ability to use prior experiences to predict what will occur in the future, uses statistical knowledge
189
violation of expectancy procedure
show infants different outcomes, longer looking time = more surprise (evidence for expectation, ex. red and white balls). Can be changed with new factors added
190
imitation
very social, requires memory of actions.
191
imitation with 6-9 month olds
can imitate action after 24 hour delay
192
imitation with 14 months
can imitate with week delay, also consider intentions
193
imitation with 18 months
more consideration of intention, can imitate success version of failure and can learn grit from seeing amount of effort
194
mirror neurons
contributor of imitation, fire when you do an action and when you watch someone else do the same action
195
statistical learning
process of detecting and learning from statistical patterns (how often, occurring together, predictions). Ex. shape pairs, artificial language
196
characteristics of statistical learning
fast, incidental, effortless, instinctive
197
object segregation
perception of boundaries between objects
198
Esther Thelen stepping reflex
the movement pattern (and its neural basis) remains but is masked by the changing ratio of leg weight to strength
199
goldilocks effect of statistical learning
avoiding patterns that are either too hard or too easy
200
instrumental conditioning
learning the relationship between a behaviour and its consequence (ex. positive reinforcement)
201
active learning
learning by doing, surprise is a driving factor
PSYCH 211
flashcards
Decks in class (3)
# Cards
