1
Q
comprehension
A
understanding what other say (or sign or write)
2
Q
production
A
speaking (or writing or signing) to others
3
Q
generativity
A
the capacity for language to generate an infinite number of sentences and express an infinite number of ideas
4
Q
phonemes
A
the elementary units of sound used in a language
5
Q
phonological development
A
the acquisition of knowledge about the sound system of a language
6
Q
morphemes
A
the smallest units of meaning in a language
7
Q
semantic development
A
learning the system for expressing meaning in a language, including word meaning
8
Q
syntax
A
rules specifying how different kinds of words can be combined in a way that makes grammatical sense
9
Q
syntactical development
A
learning about syntax
10
Q
what is language?
A
structured, rule-based system of communication using symbols to communicate meaning
11
Q
4 characteristics of language
A
symbolic, represents specific meanings, generative, structure/ rule-based
12
Q
colourless green ideas sleep furiously
A
sentence from Noam Chomsky that follows the rules of language but doesn’t have a clear meaning
13
Q
receptive vocabulary
A
comprehension: what words you’d understand if you encountered them (requires meaning, context, and intent). Develops earlier
14
Q
productive vocabulary
A
production: what words you can spontaneously use yourself (requires recalling, forming and articulating)
15
Q
predator-specific alarm calls in monkeys
A
come with strategies to behave differently depending on the call. Sophisticated communication, but not generative: can’t create new sentences or ideas. Therefore not language
16
Q
Noam Chomsky Universal Grammar
A
set of highly abstract, unconscious rules that are common to all human languages
17
Q
what do you need for language learning?
A
a human brain, rich environmental input, well-timed exposure
18
Q
why is a human brain needed for language learning?
A
language is species-specific and species-universal, meaning only humans will acquire it and all humans will acquire it with typical development
19
Q
Kanzi the bonobo
A
learned over 300 lexigrams and could combine them. Could follow verbal instructions but likely didn’t understand syntax
20
Q
other examples of non-primate response to spoken language
A
Rico the dog retrieving toys by name (comprehension) and Alex the parrot speaking (associative and learned)
21
Q
infant-directed speech
A
distinctive mode of speech that adults adopt when talking to babies and very young children. Preferred by infants and used by virtually all cultures
22
Q
features of infant-directed speech
A
Warm, positive. Higher pitch, slower enunciation with swooping. Exaggerated facial expressions
23
Q
benefits of infant directed speech
A
draws their attention, contrasts phonemes, improves word recognition
24
Q
what is well-timed exposure for language learning
A
time during which language learning happens rapidly and effortlessly, an experience-expectant process (birth - middle childhood)
25
prosody
the characteristic rhythm, tempo, cadence, melody, intonational patterns, with which a language is spoken
26
categorical perception
the perception of speech sounds as belonging to discrete categories
27
voice onset time (VOT)
the length of time between when air passes through the lips and when the vocal cords start vibrating
28
word segmentation
the process of discovering where words begin and end in fluent speech
29
distributional properties
the phenomenon that, in any language, certain sounds are more likely to appear together than are others
30
why are adults bad at distinguishing between phonemes they don't often hear/ produce?
we learn to categorize different speech sounds, lumping some sounds together while distinguishing between others
31
/b/ and /p/ perception in english speakers
bilabial sounds that we can distinguish between based on their VOT, with distinct boundary (categorical perception)
32
Werker & Lalonde conditioned headturn paradigm
da to da sound that infants can distinguish from hindi sounds that adults can't. Can no longer hear the difference after 10 months. Will turn their head to look for bunny if hear sound difference
33
White & Aslin Accents
with exposure to an accent, children under 2 can adjust their interpretation of people's phonemes
34
how do infants segment continuous strings of sounds into their component words
prosody, distributional properties, contextual cues and other known words (ex. name)
35
simple vocalization/ sounds as a precursor to production
after birth: crying to signal needs
6-8 weeks: cooing, grunts, raspberries
36
babbling as a precursor to production
repetitive production of speech/ signs early in language development (6-10 months)
37
signs of growing communication skills
gestures/ pointing, joint attention/ gaze following, turn-taking (ground-work for back and forth)
38
when does word production start
between 10-15 months, after word learning the entire first year
39
holophrastic period
window in which children use single words to communicate whole ideas
40
overextension error
using a newly-learned word more generally than one should
41
underextension error
using a newly-learning word less generally than one should
42
types of mispronunciations
substituting sounds, omitting sounds, shortening words
43
fast mapping during word learning
rapidly learning a new word simply from hearing the contrasive use of a familiar and the unfamiliar word
44
pragmatic cues during word learning
using social information to learn words
45
syntactic bootstrapping during word learning
using the grammatical structure of whole sentences to figure out the meaning of new words
46
cross-situational word learning
using repeated co-occurences across situations to map new words to their referents
47
mutual exclusivity bias
assuming an entity only has one name
48
whole-object assumption bias
expecting a novel word to refer to the whole object rather than a part, property, action, or other aspect
49
telegraphic speech
early sentences, often only two words, featuring only the core elements of the intended communication
50
overregularization
using newly learning grammatical rules/ modifiers in new or irregular circumstances incorrectly (ex. I eated a cookie)
51
why does social context matter
language is more than just words, meaning is shaped by social context and timing, tone, nonverbal cues
52
self-directed speech
young children talk to themselves to help organize their thoughts and actions
53
egocentric conversations
preschoolers' conversational turns often unrelated to what the other says. They're practicing turn taking, but not good at dialogue
54
conversations by age 5
better at topic maintenance, can use beginning, middle, end
55
foundational conversation skills
turn-taking, topic initiation and maintenance, repair strategies, affirmations
56
kids getting better at practice with conversations includes...
improved pragmatic understanding, perspective-taking, and use of verbal and contextual cues (ex. look at that doll)
57
pragmatics
the study of how language is used in-context, including the social rules and conventions of conversation, meaning, and communication, beyond literal word meanings
58
pragmatics: context
ex. the chicken is ready to eat
59
pragmatics: perspective taking
understanding what the listener already knows/ knowing what additional context they will need
60
pragmatics: indirect requests
hinting, ex. could you open the window
61
pragmatics: non-literal language
sarcasm, irony, hyperbole, idioms, metaphors, etc.
62
dynamic interactions
production + interpretation
63
social norms, relationships, culture
what counts as "appropriate" may vary, social roles shape choices
64
adaptive and context-sensitive communication
tailor language to the listener's knowledge and the situation
65
Templeton et al. RTs in unstructured conversations between adults
With faster RTs: signaled greater social connection, people felt more engaged, observers judged conversation as more connected.
66
Wilson et al. RTs in unstructured conversations between children
faster responses linked to greater observed engagement. Partner's shyness influenced RT
67
lexical alignment
using the same label on a target word as your conversation partner
68
ostracism affect on lexical alignment tasks
cyberball game w/ either exclusion or inclusion. Then picture naming task with adult and cyberball inclusion
69
alignment
tendency to adjust your behaviour to the partner/ group you are interacting with
70
study 1: linguistic alignment and language background
kids rely more on common labels when speaker is non-native, and give more tickets to native-accented partner
71
study 2: pitch alignment in naturalistic observation
during a conversation, children's voices move in sync (how high, expressiveness, how long they talk)
72
dialects
variants, distinct forms of a language. Differ with sound patterns and grammatical features
73
McGill study with deaf adults
easier ASL acquisition if some other language exposure earlier in life
74
bilingualism
build two separate systems, code switching doesn't reflect confusion. Course and rate similar for monolingual. Advantages (ex. cognitive control, word-learning) debated
75
adult influences on word learning
amount and quality of talking, optimal naming moments, spatial consistency
76
language development and SES
lower SES: smaller vocabularies, less quality interactions, more noise pollution. Intervention programs like Reach Out and Read (books at pediatrician)
77
deaf children creating own gestures
imposed a structure --> NSL evolved from home signs
78
dual representation
mentally represented as a real object and a symbol, difficult for young children
79
concepts
ideas or understandings that can be used to group together objects, events, qualities, or abstractions that are similar in some way
80
three big general categories
people, other living things, inanimate objects
81
superordinate level
more general level with broad inclusion criteria
82
basic level
middle level, typically the first generated
83
subordinate level
more specific with exacting inclusion criteria
84
kids learn about categories from others
through accommodation and assimilation, or selective learning based on how people talk about categories
85
perceptual categorization
tendency to group objects together based on perceptual similarities (ex. dax) instead of function
86
characteristic features
common or stereotypical traits of members of a category, but not necessary for membership. Preschoolers often rely on these
87
defining features
traits that define membership in a category, not part of the category without
88
naive psychology
baseline understanding of how humans and other living beings behave in the world: intention, desire, and beliefs
89
attributing intention to action
by 6 months, interpret actions as goal-directed. Dishabituate when new object reached for, despite location. Not seen w/ mechanical claw
90
agency
the ability to monitor and act on one's environment in accordance with one's will or intentions
91
vignettes with googly eye shapes
majority pick helpful shape
92
Phillips et al. desire and action
at 12 months, infants will dishabituate when experimenter interacts with the cat they didn't seem to prefer
93
age 2 understanding of desire
understand others can have their own preferences that differ and will guide their behaviour
94
theory of mind
an organized understanding of how mental processes such as intentions, desires, beliefs, perceptions, and emotions influence behaviour
95
false belief problems (ex. pencils in smarties box)
test understanding that other people will act on the basis of their own beliefs, even if incorrect (struggle with at age 3)
96
Sally-Anne false belief task
at 5, know Sally has a FB and can point to original toy location. More difficult with avoidance conditions or multiple movements
97
theory of mind module
theoretical cognitive system devoted to understanding mental states in others (innate)
98
experience with ToM
older/ other sex siblings, exposure to FBs, associated with other cognitive capacities
99
causal reasoning with red and green blocks
dishabituated when green block moved on its own, violated understanding of physical causality
100
blicket detector
detects whether an object is a blicket, can choose correctly at age 2
101
early knowledge of time
temporal order and duration, improves over time but susceptible to time illusions
102
reasoning about time (5 year olds)
reason logically in simple situation, but less able in complex situations (centration tendency)
103
one-one correspondence
each object must be labelled by a single number word
104
stable order
numbers should always be recited in the same order
105
cardinality
number of objects in a set correspond to the last number stated
106
order irrelevance
objects can be counted left to right, right to left, or in any order
107
abstractions in counting
any set of discrete objects or events can be counted
108
counting differences in China vs USA
faster in China. Due to combination of clearer pattern in language and culture
109
individual differences in ToM development
better if increased executive function and language, influenced by social-environmental factors. Differences affect prosocial behaviour and peer relations.
110
growth of play
pretend play, sociodramatic play with others, conventional rule play
111
imaginary companions
normal, doesn't cause other differences. Used to deflect blame, vent anger, convey info indirectly, etc.
112
essentialism
living things have an essence
113
representing space relative to oneself
object coded relative to infant, longer representations with brain maturation, use landmarks. If blind, can be based on other senses
114
Lourenco and Longo number relations
decoration accompanied larger stimulus
115
intelligence
the ability to acquire, apply, and adapt one's knowledge and skills to meet the demands of one's environment
116
general intelligence (g)
single broad mental capacity, ability to think and learn in every context
117
what is general intelligence related to
performance on many distinct cognitive tests, higher grades, general knowledge, physical differences (speed on neural transmission, brain volume)
118
what did Raymond Cattell propose about intelligence
two basic abilities: crystallized intelligence, fluid intelligence
119
crystallized intelligence
working with prior knowledge, associations with known concepts, experience dependent. Long-term memory + verbal ability
- grows with age and learning, allows for experts
120
fluid intelligence
thinking on the spot, new problems and content, doesn't rely on experience, working memory
- peaks in young adulthood, gradually declines
121
Louis Thurstone seven primary mental abilities
word fluency, verbal meaning, reasoning, spatial reasoning, numbering, rote memory, perceptual speed
122
Carroll's three-stratum theory of intelligence
hierarchical model of intelligence with general intelligence at the top
- 8 correlated domains in the middle that can be further broken down into many specific cognitive processes at the bottom level
- level used to describe a child's intelligence depends on what you want to know
123
how to research intelligence using the three-stratum theory
- overall ability: general intelligence
- domain of learning difficulty: intermediate level abilities
- specific research question: particular cognitive processes
124
Gardner's multiple intelligences theory
three from standard IQ tests (linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial), five additional forms (musical, kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, naturalistic)
- can be used in educational contexts to highlight a child's strengths, but not much empirical support
125
Sternberg's theory of successful intelligence
intelligence should describe one's ability to be successful in the things they choose to do
- includes analytical, creative, and practical-contextual abilities
126
emotional intelligence
ability to perceive, express, understand, reason with, and regulate emotions in oneself and others
127
criticisms of emotional intelligence
internal validity: is EI really intelligence, or are we using this term too loosely? Is it personality? IQ? Maybe better to look at individual emotional skills
external validity: after accounting for contributions of IQ and personality, measure of EI don't really help predict job performance
128
myth of visual/ auditory/ tactile learning
everyone is an everything learner, with the more ways you can interact with a piece of information the better
129
Alfred Binet
wanted to see why some children were struggling more than others in public education. Created Binet-Simon Intelligence Test that predicted later grades --> foundation of IQ tests
130
uses of measuring intelligence
predicting developmental outcomes, identifying needs. More objective than other measures
131
things to keep in mind when measuring intelligence
can't capture intelligence across all domains (only approximate), can be culturally biased, ethical considerations (ex. stigma)
132
The Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC)
produces total score (IQ) and 5 subscores
- verbal comprehension index
- visual-spatial index
- working memory index
- fluid reasoning index
- processing speed index
Used with children 6 and up, with different versions to account for linguistic/ cultural variation
133
verbal comprehension (WISC)
ability to recall, understand, think about, and express stored verbal information (crystallized)
134
verbal comprehension index (WISC)
similarities (how are x and y similar?), vocabulary (what is x?). Different point allocations to different answers
135
visual-spatial processing
ability to visualize and reason about spatial relationships, to think about things in terms of parts and wholes, and to coordinate your actions accordingly
136
visual-spatial index (WISC)
block design (move/ rotate blocks to recreate the design, look at accuracy and time), visual puzzle (select pieces to reconstruct a geometric shape)
137
working memory
ability to encode, hold, and manipulate information in your conscious awareness
138
working memory index (WISC)
digit span forwards, digit span backward, digit span sequencing (or can be with shapes, letters, etc.)
139
fluid reasoning (WISC)
identify underlying relationships and use reasoning to infer/ apply rules (fluid intelligence)
140
fluid reasoning index (WISC)
picture concepts (grouping items based on shared characteristics), matrix reasoning (selecting the item that completes the pattern)
141
processing speed
how quickly and accurately you can identify things, make decisions, and implement actions
142
processing speed index (WISC)
coding (put symbols under pattern, assign numbers to letters), symbol search (find a target in string of symbols)
143
intelligence quotient (IQ)
quantitative measure of a child's intelligence relative to other children of the same age (many different tests, each provide a score describing general intellectual ability)
144
IQ distribution
normal distribution with population average of 100 and standard deviation of 15. Easy to compare scores at different ages despite knowledge increase
145
continuity of IQ scores
relatively strong, stable relation across time (not unchanging)
146
IQ as a predictor
predictors of academic, economic, and occupational success. Also predict motivation, conscientiousness, curiosity, persistence, creativity, health, social skills, etc.
147
why shouldn't we train people to do better on IQ tests?
previous exposure to the tasks used in the IQ test means we're no longer measuring someone's true intelligence, just how well they were trained (no longer fluid intelligence)
148
what predicts IQ
strong genetic component, but the role genetics plays depends on their environment. The more consistent the environment is, the more variability is due to genetics
149
passive effect
biological parents and child have genotype in common, and environment reflects parents' own genotypes
150
evocative effects
child's genotype/ phenotype influences the behaviour a child elicits from those around them
151
active effects
child's genotype affects the environment they choose to engage with, increases with age
152
Home Observation for Measurement of the Environment
looks at physical safety, social support, intellectual stimulation. Score on HOME correlates with IQ. As SES increases, influence of home environment decreases
153
school effects on IQ
- scores jump between children of the same age in different grades
- IQ increases during the school year, but during the summer it drops a bit for low SES and continues to rise for high SES
154
having enough money effect on IQ
longer in poverty, larger impact on IQ. Ex. nutrition, resources, support at home. Need early interventions
155
physical environment effects on IQ
more air pollution, metal exposure --> worse test scores
156
self-discipline
inhibit actions, follow rules, avoid impulsive reactions
157
Flynn effect of IQ
average IQ scores consistently increased over time (influence of society)
158
Better Beginnings, Better Futures intervention
universal prevention approach with at risk communities
159
Carolina Abecedarian project
special daycare centre emphasizing language development, worked with mothers as well
160
Chall 5 stages of reading
birth-grade 1: phonemic awareness
grade 1-2: phonological recoding skills
grade 2-3: gain fluency
grade 4-8: acquire new info from text
grade 8-12: coordinate multiple perspectives
161
Dyslexia strategies
problems often long lasting. Helpful to teach effective strategies, increase vocabulary and general knowledge, draw on invented spelling
162
mathematics anxiety
more prevalent in girls and people who do poorly. Influenced by view of adults around them, helpful to express anxiety in advance
163
social development
development of children's understanding of others behaviours/ attitudes/ intentions, relationships between the self and others, how to behave and interpret social world
164
Id
unconscious pleasure-seeking drives
165
ego
conscious, rational, problem solving. Helps us get what we want in socially acceptable ways
166
superego
internalized morality standards
167
Freud's psychosexual developmental stages
as children age, they seek pleasure from different "erotically sensitive areas" (5 stages)
168
Oral (0-1) stage
mouth (sucking, eating), forming first emotional bonds
169
anal (1-3) stage
defecation, pleasure from control
170
phallic (3-6) stage
genitalia, gender identity
171
latent (7-11) stage
period of calm, desires hidden. Energy focused on learning, relationships
172
genital (12+) stage
full-blown sexual maturation, reciprocal emotionally meaningful relaitonships
173
why care about Freud
despite unsupported ideas, introduced that not everything is consciously apparent, early experiences matter, sexuality from a developmental perspective
174
Erikson's psychosocial theory
eight developmental stages (crises) that must be resolved before the next stage, or struggle will continue. Influenced many later theorists, one of first to note adolescence as important period of development
175
trust vs. mistrust
trust in intimate relationships
176
autonomy vs. shame/ doubt
fostering of independence, control/ autonomy
177
initiative vs. guilt
healthy conscience development. If harsh control --> guilt, fear of trying
178
industry vs. inferiority
"can I contribute to this world?" --> cooperation, competence/ confidence
179
identity vs. role confusion
who am I? where do I fit in?
180
learning
any durable change in behaviour or knowledge due to experience
181
classical conditioning
learning association between two previously unrelated stimuli (Pavlov's dogs).
182
unconditioned stimulus
naturally evokes a behaviour without previous conditioning
183
unconditioned response
response to an unconditioned stimulus
184
neutral stimulus
initially doesn't elicit any response (bell sound)
185
conditioned stimulus
stimulus previously neutral, but now evokes a conditioned behaviour
186
conditioned response
response to conditioned stimulus that wouldn't have occurred prior to conditioning
187
How did John Watson view children
as blank slates, waiting to be conditioned. Believed they had no innate temperaments and that experience is everything
188
John Watson "Little Albert"
showed him a white lab rat (NS), then paired NS with loud gong sound. Rat alone quickly provoked fear. Albert then became afraid of other similar stimuli
189
stimulus generalization
conditioned response extends to other stimuli similar to the original conditioned stimuli
190
B.F. Skinner operant conditioning
advocated for use in parenting/ teaching. Reward good behaviour and punish bad ones, with any sort of attention being a reinforcer. Punishment/ reinforcement depends on consistency, timing, clarity.
191
other-oriented induction
coupled with consequences, explicitly highlighting how child's behaviour affects the feelings of others. Also give clear guidance on regulating emotions
192
power of intermittent schedules
only reinforcing/ punishing some of the time increases resistance to extinction (good behaviours stick longer if praise intermittent)
193
positive vs. negative reinforcement
positive: add something pleasant
negative: take something unpleasant away
- increase behaviour
194
positive vs. negative punishment
positive: add something unpleasant
negative: take something pleasant away
- minimize behaviour
195
observational learning
human learning is social in nature, and can learn through observation/ imitation
196
Bandura's Bobo Doll studies
if kids saw adult rewarded or no consequences, they acted more violently. If saw punishment, less violent. If offered a prize, all groups acted violently
197
vicarious reinforcement
learning from someone else being rewarded/ punished
198
Kids who saw violent movie
spent more time playing with the gun, pulled the "trigger" more often. Effects mostly small scale, short-term. Also not certain of causation because children higher in aggression gravitate to more violent games. Competitive natures could be more of a factor
199
hostile attribution Bias
tendency to assume people's ambiguous actions stem from hostile intents, associated with reactive aggression
200
harsh parenting effect on attentional biases in childhood
more HAB, because assume this is how people think. Relate biases toward anger and fear because constantly looking for cues
201
attentional biases in the dot probe task
attentional bias towards a particular emotion will make you spot the x faster when it appears in the location where your attention was pulled by that emotion. Waters et al. said all children biased towards happy faces unless high in anxiety symptoms (then angry faces).
202
Penton-Voak et al. mood disorders interpretation bias training
changing how people interpret social stimuli may play a part in interventions for mood disorders (ie. an ambiguous face more likely to be interpreted negatively w/ a mood disorder)
203
Dweck entity orientation
attribute outcomes to innate abilities, individual differences. Self-worth based on performance outcomes. Avoid challenges, anxious about failure, motivation on proving themselves (no change in math score over 2 years)
204
Dweck incremental orientation
attribute outcomes to hard work, persistence, commitment. Self-worth based on self-improvement. More likely to persist, embrace challenges (higher math scores over 2 years)
205
how are entity motivations accidentally promoted?
praising positive traits may place too much emphasis on outcomes
206
how can incremental motivation be promoted
reinforce motivation to improve skills, and to find gratification in self-improvement
207
Criticisms of Dweck's theory
failute to replicate, may be oversimplified. Could have an impact in some contexts, but isn't as important of a mechanism as Dweck originally claimed
208
Bronfenbrenner's bioecological model
child's development is a combination of many interactions with others and environment
209
bioecological model big ideas
contexts affect human development. It's complex, dynamic, and inter-related. Children are born with genetic potential, and whether they reach it is influenced by environment
210
microsystem
family, school, peers. Bidirectional
211
mesosystem
microsystem interconnections
212
exosystem
indirect, but influential (ex. government)
213
macrosystem
larger cultural and social context
214
chronosystem
temporal dimension, change over time (ex. life transitions, historical changes)
215
reciprocal determinism
characteristics influence actions which influence your environment
216
developmental neuroscience adverse rearing conditions
can lead to atypical hormone responses socially
217
ethology
behaviour within an evolutionary context
218
parental-investment theory
motivated to perpetuate genes. Cinderella effect with step parents?
219
neural activity portion of emotions (ex. fear)
brain rapidly detects threat, activity in amygdala, hypothalamus, hindbrain increased
220
physiological response portion of emotions (ex. fear)
heart rate elevates, pupils dilate. Hormones mobilize muscles
221
emotional expression portion of emotions (ex. fear)
cues to other of your emotions (eyebrows, eyes, mouth)
222
subjective feeling portion of emotions (ex. fear)
sense of dread, terror
223
stimulation of thoughts, desires, actions portion of emotions (ex. fear)
motivation to flee, beginning to run, information processing for escape routes
224
relationship between emotions and thinking
sometimes emotions come first, other times thoughts come first. Can lead to a vicious cycle
225
discrete emotion theory
basic emotions and their expression are innate products of evolution. Each has psychobiological basis
226
how do we know emotions are universal?
Ekman worked with the isolated Fore people of New Guinea. They showed the same emotional expressions, and interpretations
227
facial affect coding system
detects face changes as signals/ tags of emotions
228
happiness function
response to something good, encourages us to survive and thrive (achieve goals, form bonds, eat high calorie food)
229
first signs of happiness
- 1 month: smiling during REM sleep, smile reflex when stroked
- 3-8 weeks: novelty, affection, social smiling
- 7-8 months: familiarity
- 1 year: humours
230
fear function
keeps us away from danger, tells others to be afraid
231
first signs of fear
- little evidence in first few months
- 7-8 months: stranger anxiety
- separation anxiety
232
anger function
reaction to perceived injustice, motivates action to correct
233
hot cognition
biased cognition when experiencing strong emotions
234
first signs of anger
- infants: hard to distinguish sadness from anger
- 4 months: evoked experimentally
- 18-24 months: tendency to react with anger peaks
235
sadness function
elicits social support
236
Buss & Kiel facial expression towards mom
even in anger or fear inducing situations, primary emotion expressed was sadness in 2 year olds --> elicit support from mom
237
surprise function
detect when our expectations about the world were incorrect, stimulate interest, investigation, learning. Sudden realization something unpredictable has occurred, past beliefs were wrong.
238
when does surprise emerge
around 6 months (startle right from birth, but not the same thing)
239
disgust function
strongly encourage avoidance of things that may make us sick, signal to others. Later on, also have moral disgust
240
first signs of disgust
- hour old infants will show different reactions for sugary vs. bitter
- toddlers: yucky/ gross
- can only recognize disgust around age 9 (often confused with anger)
241
self-conscious emotions
emotions related to one's sensitivity to the perceptions and reactions of others and one's perceptions of oneself: guilt, shame, shyness
242
guilt
focused on one's actions and their consequences for others. Regret, empathy. Want to make amends. Promote by focusing on behaviours over traits
243
shame
focused more broadly on one's feelings of self-worth, inherent value. Avoidance instead of amending. More risky behaviours than guilt longitudinally
244
shyness
fear, discomfort, avoidance when faced with new social situations and potential for social evaluation. Conflict between social-approach and social-avoidance motivations
245
what predicts shyness
individual differences in emotion/ reactivity, biologically rooted
246
what does shyness predict
strong predictor of later social anxiety, with 50% of shy kids later developing SAD
247
ages of identifying emotions
3 months: happiness, surprise, anger
7 months: fear, sadness, interest
248
paring toys with emotion expressions
12-14 months: no preference
16-18 months: preferred toys paired with happiness/ surprise
249
Carver and Vaccaro hedgehog social referencing with one year olds
if experimenter more enthusiastic, they were more comfortable to go and interact. If fearful, they would avoid. If neutral, some interest but less motivation to interact
250
explicitly labelling emotions
age 2: happiness
age 3: anger, sadness, fear
later: surprise, disgust
- more accurate labelling associated with higher social competence and lower behaviour problems
251
emotion socialization
acquiring the values, standards, skills, knowledge, and behaviours that are regarded as appropriate in one's culture
252
emotion coaching
discussing emotions with kids, providing tips on coping with them and expressing them. Helps with social competence, empathy, lowers depression risk
253
emotion regulation
a set of both conscious and unconscious processes used to monitor and modulate emotional experiences and expressions
254
co-regulation
emotion regulation facilitated by interaction with a caregiver (comfort, soothing, distraction)
255
self-soothing behaviour
repetitive actions that regulate arousal by providing a mildly positive physical sensation (decreases over first year)
256
self-distraction
looking away from upsetting stimuli to reduce/ regulate arousal (increases over first year)
257
self-control skills
ability to inhibit negative behaviours, AND inhibit positive emotions/ impulsive behaviours
258
Mischel's marshmallow studies
look at delay of gratification. Likelihood of delaying increases if value of delayed reward increases or total time they need to wait decreases. Also got better at delaying with age
- variety of regulation strategies
- younger kids preferred to leave uncovered
- affected by belief of whether they'll actually be rewarded
259
temperament
individual differences in children's reactivity and self-regulation in response to events and stimuli in the environment. Foundation of adult personality
260
origins of study of temperament
interviewing parents about babies' patterns of behaviour, found easy, difficult, and slow-to-warm-up babies
261
easy babies characteristics and percentage
highly adaptable, adjust quickly, show interest and delight in novelty, regular schedules (40%)
262
difficult babies
withdraw and have hard time adapting, intense negative response to novelty. Irregular routines (10%)
263
slow-to-warm-up babies
withdrawn at first, warm up and adapt over time. Wary of novelty, lower intensity (15%)
264
problem with Thomas and Chess categories
35% of babies don't fit into any category
265
Rothbart within-subjects approach
look at many characteristic within a child, break temperament down into continuous dimension
266
Rothbard 5 central dimensions of infant temperament
fear, distress, attention span, activity level, smiling and laughter
267
surgency
tendency toward positive emotions, seeking stimulation, high activity levels
268
negative affectivity
tendency toward negative emotions and difficulty settling down when aroused (not opposite of surgency)
269
effortful control
ability to focus/ shift attention, inhibit impulses, cope with low-intensity, complex, or new activities. Good self regulators
270
temperament over time
quite consistent, strongly influenced by genetics
271
goodness of fit
degree to which a child's temperament is compatible with the demands and expectation of their social environment
272
differential susceptibility
the same temperament that puts some kids at risk in negative conditions might cause them to excel in positive conditions
273
dandelion children
do well in all but most high-risk environments
274
orchid children
flourish under supportive conditions, struggle under difficult ones
275
mental health
children's sense of psychological well-being. Includes internal emotions/ stress levels and external relationships
- influenced by genes and environment
276
stress
a physiological reaction to a change or threat in the environment, with a stressor knocking us out of homeostatic balance
277
toxic stress
experience of overwhelming, chronic levels of stress without support from adults to help mitigate its effects --> long-lasting effects
278
categories of adverse childhood experiences (ACEs)
abuse, neglect, household disfunction
279
landmark ACEs study
more ACEs, more likely to experience a variety of issues
280
addressing toxic stress
shift to non-stressful environments, trauma-focused interventions, prevention
281
still face paradigm
soon to be distressed if mother not expressing emotion
282
equifinality vs. multifinality
equifinality: various factors can lead to the same disorder
multifinality: certain risk factors don't always lead to a disorder
283
5 principles of counting
one-one correspondence, stable order, cardinality, order irrelevance, abstractions
284
5 stages of focus (out of 8) for Erikson's psychosocial theory
trust vs. mistrust, autonomy vs. shame/doubt, initiative vs. guilt, industry vs. inferiority, identity vs. role confusion
285
5 subscore indexes of WISC
verbal comprehension, visual-spatial, working memory, fluid reasoning, processing speed
PSYCH 211
flashcards
Decks in class (3)
# Cards
