Untitled Deck

Question 1

Dunker 1945

Answer 1

problem = arises when a living organism has A goal but doesn’t know now to achieve it

Question 2

Eysenck & Keane 2020

Answer 2

Problem solving = purposeful, involves cognitive processes, only exist when someone lacks the relevant knowledge

Question 3

Mayer 1931

Answer 3

Two string problem -need to tie string to another (can’t reach one string whilst holding the other string). Insight problem - requires one off solution (pick up an item to attach to string)

Question 4

Tower of Hanoi

Answer 4

Each hoop can only go on top of a larger hoop. Aim to move hoop stack to other end. Non-insight problem - requires incremental and sequential problem solving

Question 5

Jung-beeman et al., 2004

Answer 5

Right anterior superior temporal gurus was activated only when solutions involved insight

Question 6

Representational change theory - Ohlsson 1992

Answer 6

Insight problems permit several mental representations (current representation is used to search memory for relevant info). Black occurs when representation is inappropriate- can bc passed by changing rep.
Elaboration = new info
constraint relaxation - extend ideas of what is possible
Re-encoding (e.g. pliers can act as weight)
insight often follows the formation of a correct representation

Question 7

Kaplan & Simon 1990

Answer 7

Mutilated chess board (will dominoes cover? No)
Each domino covers a white and black (re-encoding)
Board has lost 2 white (re-encoding, elaboration)

Question 8

Kneblich, ohlsson & raney (2001)

Answer 8

Match stick problem - IV = III - I
Moving single stick to make true statement participants focus on numbers not operates

Question 9

Newell & Simon 1972

Answer 9

General problem solver - problems represented in problem space (starts with initial stare, ends with goal state)
complex problems - operators are chosen using heuristics -means-end analysis, hill climbing , based on thinking aloud during problem solving

Question 10

Thomas 1974

Answer 10

Theories often only apply to restricted type of problem - real-life application? Individual difference?
Tendency towards being disruptive rather than predictive

Question 11

Dunker 1945

Answer 11

Candle problem - arch candle to the wall without it dripping
Negative transfer - tack box is for holding tacks not candles (improves if tack box is empty to start)
Positive transfer - research focuses on analogical problem solving

Question 12

Luchins 1942

Answer 12

Well practiced strategies are often used in inappropriate situations

Question 13

Gick & Holyoak 1980

Answer 13

Stomach tumour problem with 3 stories convergence, open passage, surgery - story matched solution

Question 14

Holyoak & Koh 1987

Answer 14

analogy group discussed radiation problem & control group did not
3-7 days later presented with target problem (lightbulb filament)

Question 15

Woodworth & Sells 1935

Answer 15

people do not reason logically

Question 16

Braine 1978

Answer 16

Abstract Rule Theory — people use abstract generalised rules (often derived from past experience)
Sometimes mistaken if lacking context
can be improved if presented additional clarifying info (Braine et al 1984)
over generalisation, misapplication of the rules, confirmation bias (only looking to info that affirms belief)

Question 17

Johnson-Laird 1999

Answer 17

everyday comprehension processes (mental model) are used on reasoning problems
creating mental image to represent premise (reasoning involves examination of mental model and/or attempt to create an alternative model)
usually only falsify new models when initial one fails because too taxing (high mental load)

Question 18

Newstead et al., 1999

Answer 18

mental models theory predicts people will consider more conclusions in problems where they must create more mental models (found no difference in number of conclusions considered between when 1 model or several)

Question 19

Evans et al., review 2003

Answer 19

Dual systems approach
Fast, automatic, based on gut reaction (over reliance on instinct and emotional bias)
Slow, deliberate, abstract, based on logic (analysis paralysis)

Question 20

Griggs & Cox 1982

Answer 20

Beer, Coke, 35, 19 — which cards need turning over to prove drinking age — 72% correct (increase because the info was more thematic so reasoning and context is greater

Question 21

Wason

Answer 21

for deductive reasoning you need to be able to both prove the rule works and also that it isn’t violated (4 cards, how many turn over to prove rule and that rule isn’t violated — 4% correct)

Question 22

Manktelow & Evans 1979

Answer 22

Haddock, gin situation (found thematic and abstract materials performed similarly)

Question 23

Wason 2-4-6 task 1960

Answer 23

only 21% correct with first guess (assume its increments of two or even numbers etc), 70% correct in the end after testing several options
rule was has to be in ascending order (can’t test all the hypotheses to 100% guarantee this is the answer)
works the opposite of real life (this experiment — starts with own rule then have to expand to other potential rules, real life — starts with large range hypothesis & have to widdle down to one solution)

Question 24

Tweney et al 1980

Answer 24

performance doesn’t improve when specifically instructed to use a disconfirmatory approach

Question 25

Mynatt et al., 1977

Answer 25

participants given hypothesis and then info that either confirms or disconfirmed it (and control group) then asked to choose computer that either confirmed their original hypothesis or disproved it. all 3 groups selected the computer that confirmed it regardless of whether it had been previously disconfirmed

Question 26

Mirtroff 1974

Answer 26

majority of NASA scientists (N=40) highly committed to their own theoretical positions (undeveloped ideas would die as result of premature falsification)

Question 27

Tversky & Kahneman 1983

Answer 27

Conjunction fallacy approach — using heuristics often leads to biases (generally useful but biases highlight the errors) Linda problem — 85% of people said bank teller and feminist rather than just bank teller (conjunction makes less likely) focus on stereotypes rather than stat probabilities (over-looking base rates)

Question 28

Tversky & Kahnemen 1983

Answer 28

2000 words from a novel are going to end -ing or_n_ (most people said -ing even though -ing words plus others are _n_)

Question 29

Lichenstein et al., 1978

Answer 29

tornadoes v asthma — people overestimate tornadoes and underestimate asthma (even though 20x more likely)

Question 30

Coombs & Slovic 1979

Answer 30

peoples risk judgements were related to frequency of media coverage

Question 31

Clark & Teasdale 1985

Answer 31

positive and negative memories recalled in the appropriate mood

Question 32

Support Theory

Answer 32

you will die on your next holiday vs specifying what will kill you (subjective probability higher when specify — memory limitations may prevent people from remembering all relevant information if its not provided)

Question 33

Finucane et al., 2000

Answer 33

peoples judgement of risk and benefit are inversely related and heavily influenced by their emotional responses when positive affect towards activity tend to judge it as low risk and high benefit efficiency v accuracy (efficiency often sacrifices accuracy)

Question 34

Tversky & Kahneman 1974

Answer 34

End anchoring — when someone makes estimate (anchor) and then over relies on this in future estimates group 1: is % of african countries in UN <> 10%? — people answered = 24% when asked specific percentage group 2: <> 65%? people answered = 45% (initial info skews judgment)

Question 35

Casscells et al., 1978

Answer 35

disease has 1/1000 prevelance and 5% false positive result — out of positive results how many actually have the disease only 11/60 answered 2% — correct answer — most said 95%

Question 36

Gigerenzer, Cosmides and Tooby — frequentist approach