1
Q
what are the 4 types of drought?
A
meteorological drought- when long-term precipitation is lower than normal
agricultural drought- where there is insufficient soil moisture to meet the crops needs
hydrological drought- deficiencies in surface and subsurface supplies (rivers, reservoirs, lakes, groundwater), can lead to salinisation in high temps
socio-economic/famine drought- widespread failure of crops and natural vegetation, demand greater than supply
it goes in this order in when they occur
2
Q
what is the UN’s definition of a drought?
A
an extended period of deficient rainfall relative to the average for an area. it is a slow onset hazard.
3
Q
what are the 3 meteorological causes of drought?
A
- global atmospheric circulation system and the ITCZ (longer term)
- mid latitude blocking anticyclones (shorter term)
- el nino southern oscillation cycle (ENSO)
4
Q
explain the difference between short term and long term precipitation deficits
A
shorter term may be mid latitude blocking anticyclones or sea surface temperature anomalies and long term trends may be those that are associated with climate change or the ITCZ
5
Q
explain the role of global atmospheric circulation in influencing drought
A
areas 30º north and south are drought prone due to warm and clear skies through high pressure.
- sometimes the sub tropical ridge associated with the descending Hadley cell air blocks the high humidity, rain bearing air masses that arrive with the ITCZ.
- this is because it is dense and stable.
- this can cause severe droughts like in the Sahel and is generally worse 30º north
- climate change may increase this by reducing the temperature difference between land and sea
6
Q
explain the role of mid blocking cyclones in influencing drought
A
normally in the mid latitudes (UK) frontal precipitation is created in low pressure systems that form along the polar front where warm tropical air rises over cold polar air
- when the jetstream loops north of the UK, high pressure areas (anticyclones) from the subtropics can move northwards, this ‘blocking’ anticyclone is able to block the passage of the jetstream which brings depressions to the UK
- the stability of the anticyclones means that due to the sinking air and calm conditions they can persist and block weather systems from the west for up to two weeks, if this happens a lot it can cause drought
- from 2010-2012 England and Wales saw a prolonged period of below-average rainfall due to blocking anticyclones leading to:
- raging wildfires in NW Scotland as peat lands dried out
- in autumn 2011 farmers struggled to harvest crops
7
Q
what are depressions?
A
they move from west to east in the mid-latitudes as a result of the Coriolis force and their track is diverted by the polar front jet stream which is a very fast moving belt of air in the upper troposphere, these depressions are forced normally to the north but also to the south
8
Q
what are features of an anticyclone?
A
- upwards/rising air
- clockwise, light/calm winds
- high pressure
- dry weather
- very stable, not easily moved and can stay put for several weeks
9
Q
what is the ENSO cycle?
A
It refers to the coupled ocean-atmospheric cycle where a large mass of warm water in the equatorial Pacific alters its position during the cycle. (normally happens at Christmas)
10
Q
what are the normal conditions in the Pacific basin compared to those during an El Nino?
A
normal conditions:
- trade winds blow from east to west along the equator
- the air pushes the warm moist air westwards to Indonesia and the cold dry air to South America
- the warmer air in the west results in low pressure and in the east the air cools and sinks creating high pressure
- warm, moist air rises, cools and condenses forming rain clouds
- thermocline, upwelling
el nino:
- the air circulation loop is reversed with air moving from west to east and so Peru gets wetter due to warm air and Indonesia gets dryer due to colder air leading to forest fires and droughts.
- the trade winds get weaker and warm surface water drifts across the Pacific towards S America leading to a drought in the west
- less upwelling of cold on east, cancels out normal temp difference
- it impacts the tropics the most
11
Q
what happens in a La Nina?
A
- a flip side in oscillations and trade winds strengthen and so this leads to the ocean become colder with more upwelling in the east and warmer oceans in the west
- this leads to enhanced conditions where water is colder than normal in the tropical part of the pacific.
- this can lead to severe drought conditions especially along the western coast of South America, usually follows after an el Nino event and there is very warm water moving east to west with very strong air circulation
- Peru gets even dryer than it would be, asia gets even wetter
12
Q
explain what teleconnections are
A
it refers to the climate anomalies that relate to each other over large distances
ENSO cycles have been connected with climate anomalies across the world
teleconnections in el niño show dry weather in western pacific from June to January and eastern Pacific between the band of dry weather sees wet weather from June to April
- el nino has also created dryer conditions in south Africa and india
this is reversed in a la Nina where the band in western Pacific becoming wet and the band to the east becoming dry
- la nina has created dryer conditions in the Middle East and southern USA
areas wet in el niño will be dry in la Nina
13
Q
how do the teleconnections from and el nino/la Nina affect the hydro cycle?
A
el nino
- the drier climate means there will be reduced evapotranspiration after reaching deficit and therefore lower soil moisture, and lower river discharge, this will lead to agricultural drought
la nina
- western pacific sees higher soil moisture therefore resulting in higher levels of surface run off (saturated and infiltration excess overland flow) which in turn leads to a higher discharge of rivers
14
Q
give statistics on drought and food shortages as a result of enso
A
- Britain have pledged £45million of emergency support for 2.6 million people and food for up to 120,000 malnourished children in Ethiopia and elsewhere
- one of the worst affected areas is likely to be Malawi where the worst drought in almost 10 years is expected to cause further severe malnutrition
- unicef said it expected 8.5 million people in Ethiopia to need food aid and several million more in Somalia and Kenya
15
Q
explain the 2015 el nino
A
- the concentrated rain bands account for 40% of California’s water supply
- it reduces rainfall in their wet seasons and less rain means drier vegetation and drier air which makes forests more vulnerable to forest fires
- the 2015 el Nino was scheduled to be the strongest since 1997-98
- people wonder whether it would have brought significant rainfall to drought-plagued California
16
Q
what will happen with el ninos and climate change?
A
- some suggest that super el ninos events could double in the future due to CC
- scientists are predicting that extreme el Nino events could occur every 10 years instead of every 20
- some suggest the enso cycle will become more intense, others say it will weaken and some say it wont change
- the interaction of them means that the el Nino events may be stronger than ever
17
Q
explain the Indian monsoon in a changing climate
A
- an increase in monsoon rainfall on a seasonal mean, area-average basis, due to the twin drivers of an increasing land-sea thermal contrast and the warming over the indian ocean which allows more moisture to be carried to India
- a 5-10% change in rainfall, can influence agricultural production and the stocks and commodities market
- a break in monsoon rains sees cuts of up to 50% in some cases of their normal rainfall, leading to cuts in agricultural output and declining GDP
- 2013 floods in asia
18
Q
what is an el nino? (brief)
A
warm surface water in the pacific that is normally kept on the west as a result of trade winds, moves east across the Pacific Ocean
19
Q
what is a la Nina? (brief)
A
a more intense version of normal conditions in the pacific when trade winds are intensified and warm surface water is pushed further west, allowing colder water to upwell and move further west across the ocean, causing drought in South America. this usually follows an el Nino event
20
Q
how will climate change affect inputs and outputs within the hydrological cycle?
A
precipitation
- a warmer atmosphere has a greater water-holding capacity
- precipitation to increase in tropics and high latitudes and will decrease 10-30º north and south of the equator as conditions strengthen
- widespread increases in rainfall intensity due to increase in moisture in the troposphere and so the higher water vapour concentration leads to intense rainfall events
- rainfall intensity rise
- fall in the long term
due to lack of evaporation due to dieback from dry weather in the long term
- threat of tipping point of the amazon dieback, between 30 and 60% of the amazon could become a dry savannah leading to forest loss and further problems with precipitation
evaporation
- evaporation rates to increase due to warmer temps leading to higher water vapour concentration leading to intense rainfall events
- transpiration is linked to vegetation changes which in turn are linked to changes in soil moisture and precipitation
21
Q
what stores and flows will be impacted by climate change?
A
- runoff (flow) leading to flooding
- soil moisture stores leading to drought
- size of snow and glacier mass
- reservoir, lake and wetland storage
- permafrost
22
Q
how is the size of snow and glacier mass going to be affected by climate change?
A
snow
- warmer temps means more snow is falling as rain
- length of snow-cover season has decreased especially in norther hemisphere, earlier peaks in snowmelt, seen accelerated runoff
- a decreased temporary store, particularly in northern Siberia and canada
- rapid snowmelt leads to rise in surface runoff due to exceeding infiltration capacity leading to flooding
- impacts on the Alps
- this can have an impact on ecosystems, farmers rely on the timing of the runoff to plan irrigation
ice
- strong evidence that glaciers have retreated globally, since the little global ice age, thinning of glaciers occurring (down washing), quicker since 1970s
- tropical high-latitude glaciers, e.g. the andes have seen the most rapid changes, low flow of the cryosphere supply
- reduction in albedo effect, positive feedback, tipping point
- albedo effect, positive feedback
- greenland ice sheet has drained 14% more ice from the ice sheet annually that it did on average between 1985 and 1999
- negative feedback?
23
Q
how has runoff (flow) leading to flooding and soil moisture leading to drought been affected by climate change?
A
runoff (flow) leading to flooding
- an accelerated cycle with more intense rainfall with increase run-off rates and reduced infiltration
- with more climate extremes there will be an increase in hydrologic extremes with more low flows and high flows
- more times we will see infiltration-excess overland flow and saturated overland flow, increasing chances of flooding, pass infiltration capacity
soil moisture stores leading to drought
- long term warmer temps leads to increased drying of land surface, increased incidence and severity of drought, palmer drought severity index a measure of soil moisture, less infiltration, desertification
- sahel, eastern Australia, southern africa see harsher conditions in particular, agricultural drought, 35 million food insecure
- shifts in water cycle occurred over past century due to both natural variations and human forcings
- transpiration linked to changes in soil moisture and precipitation and therefore drought
- it has reduced due to high evaporation leading to drought
24
Q
how is permafrost and reservoir, lake and wetland storage affected by climate change?
A
permafrost
- changes in climate at high altitudes leading to permafrost degradation
- deepening of the active layers has an impact on groundwater supplies and also release methane from thaw lakes, leading to positive feedback and accelerating change
- active layer depth increasing and thawing across northern latitudes and high latitudes
- methane released from thaw lakes may accelerate change
- for every 1º increase in global temps this leads to the release of 5-6x the amount of fossil fuel emissions equivalent
reservoir, lake and wetland storage
- due to earlier snowmelt, seasons with highest water demand especially summer and autumn are seeing reduced availability of fresh water
- wetlands affected by decreasing water volumes and higher temps, habitats dying
- regional variations in lakes and reservoirs linked to regional changes in climate change
- some declining where dryer, e.g. Lake Chad
25
what are 7 points why the effects of climate change on the hydrological cycle are uncertain (human and physical factors)
human factors
- inconsistent results from climate models
- government policy, unsure on what governments will put into place, this can dramatically change the impacts
- development, uncertainty on the amount of carbon to be released and its effects on temps
- pop rise (plateau in growth?)
- technological innovations, renewable energy?
physical factors
- unsure on tipping points, point at which permafrost melts, sea ice disappears
- sheer complexity of the atmospheric system (e.g. the ENSO cycle, sunspot activity complicates data), a mixture of short term (ENSO) and longer terms caused by CC
26
what is the difference between technological fixes and attitudinal fixes?
techno fix- involves large scale hard engineering projects (top down) or small scale innovations appropriate technology (bottom up)
attitudinal fixes- involves people changing their behaviour towards water use to conserve water, e.g. Denmark
27
what is integrated drainage basin management?
- it is where all players are involved in planning for the whole drainage basin come together to agree on a set of policies or strategies
- aim is to achieve a balanced and mutually acceptable approach to water management and reducing conflicts
- it takes into consideration the whole drainage basin to build a framework that is holistic and sustainable.
- examples include the Colorado compact, the Murray-darling basin plan and the nile basin initiative, none of these are perfect and there are players in conflict
IWRM is said to work well at a community level but not so well in larger river basins, especially if an international boundary is involved, as seen in the case of the Colorado river
28
what are the 3 examples of hard engineering techno fix mega projects?
- the 3 gorges dam, china
- the south-north water transfer project, china
- Israel's desalination project
29
explain the 3 gorges dam china and the positives and negatives
built on the Yangtze River which flows west to east through south china
- concrete and steel dam 2.3km long, made of 510k tonnes of steel
- enables surplus water to be stored and diverted to northern china via the south-north transfer project improving water security
- designed to control flooding on the Yangtze, improving water supply by regulating river flow
positives:
- the power generated by the 34 generators is equivalent to burning 25 million tons of crude oil or 50 million tons of coal (largest power station in the world)
- to generate HEP for china's economic growth as well as making the river navigable, trade
negatives:
- very expensive, $35 billion
- 632m squared of land flooded to form reservoir, displacing 1.3 million people from 1500 villages
- water quality affected by waste from industry, sewage and farms
- decomposing vegetation in the reservoir produces methane which is a strong greenhouse gas
30
explain the south-north water transfer project, china
Water transfer schemes involve the diversion of water from one drainage basin to another, either by diverting a river or constructing a large canal to carry water from one basin to another.
- 3 routes will transfer 25 billion m cubed of water from the Yangtze River to northern china: western route to the yellow river, an eastern route via a series of lakes and a central route
- the cost is US$70 billion, due for completion by 2050
- Beijing has similar water scarcity to Saudi Arabia, just 100m cubed per person
critics say 'with better management, this project is not needed'
positives:
- to provide water for Beijing region which has 35% of the population, 40% of the arable land but only 7% of water
- will boost economic development in Beijing allowing for innovation into water efficient tech
- will reduce abstraction of groundwater (water table dropped by 300m since the 70s)
negatives:
- social, 345,000 people displaced as submerges 370km squared of land
- risks draining too much water from southern china which has also experienced water scarcity, creating conflict within china, drop in flow of up to 60%
- eastern route runs through heavy industry so is likely to become more polluted, purification needed before consumption
- water supply might be too expensive for farmers to buy so they will continue to extract groundwater
31
explain Israel's desalinisation project and its pros and cons
- abstraction of sea water from the Mediterranean
- 5 plants opened in 2013 aiming to provide 70% of Israel's domestic water supplies by 2030
- water is either evaporated to leave behind the salts that make seawater unusable or undergoes reverse osmosis where water is pushed through a membrane to separate it from the salts
- technological advances in the development of the process of reverse osmosis and pioneering work on carbon nanotube membranes
positives:
- some plants are using solar power to run
- produces up to 600 tonnes of potable water per hour, providing a reliable supply for large settlements
- cost of desalinisation technology has declined recently making this an increasingly economically viable option
negatives:
ENVIRONMENTAL
- each plant requires its own power station in order to boil the water, contributing to co2 emissions
- produces vast amounts of brine that needs to be released back into the sea or disposed of which can potentially harm ecosystems
32
explain briefly Sydney's desalinisation project
- running at full capacity yet it supplies just 15% of sydney's water needs
- only has minimal impacts on the environment
- globally there are 15,900 operational desalination plants producing about a million cubic metres of desalinated water
33
what are the 4 sections of the sustainability quadrant (briefly
EQUITY
- does it negatively affect those downstream?
- fair accessibility and affordability for all
- not affecting everyones well-being
FUTURITY
- conservation of water supplies so they dont run out
- provides long term security
- economically viable practises
PUBLIC PARTICIPIATION
- involves communities in decision making and implementation
- appropriate technologies used so public can access
ENVIRONMENT
- protection of wetland ecosystems
- restoration of lost and damaged ecosystems
- carbon neutral, not polluting
- tipping points
34
what are the main aims of sustainable water management? give statistic of no. of irrigated fields in California and statistic on pipe leakage in Cairo and Israel
- minimise waste and pollution of water resources
- ensure that there is access to safe water for all people at an affordable price
- take into account the views of all water users
- guarantee an equal distribution of water within and between countries
- 38% of irrigated fields in California use drip
- pipe leakage in cairo is 50%
- pipe leakage in Israel is 9-10%
35
what are 5 sustainable water management strategies
1) smart irrigation- slow supply of constant water, no waste, gives the minimum amount of water necessary for high yield, it is highly monitored
traditional sprinklers are replaced by modern automated spray technology and advanced drip irrigation systems
2) virtual water- importing crops that have used water, instead of using large amounts of water to irrigate, you only use water for other uses, seen in very arid regions
3) rainwater harvesting- where people collect the rain falling on the roofs of dwellings and store it in butts for various domestic purposes, such as flushing toilets and watering the garden
4) recycling water with filtration technology - recycling sewage water and purifying it to be able to drink
5) attitudinal fix, charges increase to reflect actual costs- controlling the price of water to make people waste less
36
explain the holistic water management in Israel
- smart/irrigation drip feed ensures water goes directly into soil next to roots to minimise evaporation losses, suboptimal water amounts puts crops under mild stress during growth phrases whilst not reducing yields significantly, 60% of their crops use this
- due to their climate, natural geography and politics it has formed them to manage their water efficiently
- aim to transfer water from the sea of galilee to the centre of the country
they have done this through:
compared to food , organised by Netafim
- reducing agricultural consumption, importing water in food as virtual water
- adopting stringent conservation techniques
- attitudinal fix: pricing water high to discourage waste
- Netafim says their crops yield 15% more due to the few amounts of fertilisers needed and therefore lower chemical pollution, drip tech releases fewer GGs than irrigation
they acquire new supplies through:
- importing 50 million tonnes of water per year by ship from turkey (Manavgat Project)
- piping seawater from the Red Sea and mediterranean to new inland desalination plants
- recycling sewage water for agriculture (65% of crops use this)
37
explain the rainwater harvesting jars in Uganda
- local builders trained in the construction of rainwater harvesting jars which are made from locally available materials and have a capacity of 1500 litres
- they collect rainfall from roofs and store water for dryer periods
- once constructed, the jars can provide a stable water source for many years
- organised by WaterAid that raises funds to improve access to safe water, sanitation and hygiene for the world's poorest people
In Kitayita village, Uganda where 3000 people lack access to safe water
- no longer need to travel long distances for what that is unclean (health benefits, girls education and freedoms)
- sustainable, long lasting and easy to use
- however it still relies on natural rainy season which is becoming uncertain with climate change
- very small scale and so overall impacts on water security are very minimal
38
explain what is happening in Singapore to sustainable water management
- they have the cutting edge of new technologies to re-use grey water, NEWater is recycled water that is treated using disinfectant, meets 30% of the current needs
- leakages have been cut by 5%
- Singapore still need to import water, they have an agreement until 2061 to important water from Malaysia
- desalination of seawater, two plants now meet 25% of the water demand
- they have also invested into agro technology in order to diversify their water supply (water harvesting)
39
explain the restoring aquifers in Saudi arabia
- circular irrigation systems to grow enough wheat to feed itself and neighbours using water from its aquifers, levels fell in aquifers
- wheat farms have been abandoned to reduce demands upon aquifers supplying irrigation waters
40
what does a IWRM aim to ensure?
- the environmental quality of the rivers and catchment
- that water is used with maximum efficiency
- an equitable distribution of water among users
41
who are the three players in water management and the water sharing treaties and frameworks
each player has a responsibility to minimise conflict and maximise cooperation. the UN sets Govs rules that need to be observed, NGOs have a role in monitoring potential conflict situations, TNCs, planners, water companies and environmentalists also all play a role in water management.
The UN
- United Nations economic commission for europe (UNECE) water convention promotes the co-ordinated management and conservation of shared freshwater ecosystems
- the Helsinki rules with their 'equitable shares' and 'equitable use' concepts
- the UN water courses convention aims to ensure the quality, quantity and sustainable use of trans-boundary water resources through helping cooperation
- adopting the IWRM with a policy setting out that water resources are an integral component of ecosystems
The EU
- EU water framework directive (WFD) (2000) set targets to restore rivers, lakes, canals and coastal waters to 'good condition'
- it promotes coordinated management of water in a sustainable way
- policy requires that new developments much have an EIA
National government agencies (the Environment agency)
- the environment agency checks compliance with EU frameworks, although this may change post-brexit
- they help with waste management and flood risk in coastal areas
Greenpeace
- they are concerned about all sorts of pollution and contaminating supplies and threatening ecosystems, e.g. campaigns on 'eliminate toxics'
42
explain the Colorado river
- high descending Hadley air, naturally very dry
- facing aridification
- supplies water to eight states, contains 11 major dams and reservoirs, irrigates 1.4 million hectares of farmland and provides drinking water for 50 million people
- source from the orographic rainfall from the rocky mountains
- chronically overused, surrounding aquifers depleting leading to reduced base flow
- the Salton sea is shrinking due to demand in cities
- lake mead, the largest reservoir in the world is at lowest ever levels
- used to be 2 million acres of wetlands
- there are 29 dams and numerous diversion projects now in existence
- California have been forced to introduce irrigation restrictions and are looking into desalinisation, Nevada asking for extra water allocation
43
explain the key dates surrounding the IDBM on the Colorado
1922- seven states agreed a compact and the basin was divided into upper (source areas) and lower (demand areas) sections. water was then allocated by state.
1990- the lower basin US states used their full allocation for the first time making the issue worse
1998- the colorado river stopped reaching the sea and the delta began to dry up reducing wetlands
2007- an agreement was made where instead of sharing the water, the 7 US states divide up the shortages, making allocations fairer, as a result California has reduced the amount it extracts by 20%
2012- agreement called Minute 139 signed between USA and Mexico, giving the right to Mexico to store some of the colorado river to Lake Mead
2014- the river reached the sea for the first time in 16 years because water was released from the dams by releasing a pulse flow and sustaining base flows
2019- colorado river drought contingency plan signed by 7 states, they need to reduce their usage, only 10 year temporary plan, futurity?
44
what are 4 recommendations for the Colorado river
- US citizens need to have a change in mentality, they view water as a right
- domestic conservation, 30% of water could be saved by repairing leaks or metering supplies. planting drought-tolerant plants in gardens, using smart irrigation systems could save even more (follow Israel)
- re-using waste water- from sewage treatment for landscape irrigation and industry, or to recharge aquifers
- if smart planning were introduced then new housing would be permitted only where water supplies are adequate
45
how was Colorado's IDBM successful?
- in 2012, the minute 139 plan helped to revive the delta and restore some normality
- beginning to improve as people make changes, e.g. people in Las Vegas use turf instead of grass
46
how is Colorado's IDBM unsuccessful?
- the rate of climate change is far greater than the IDBM's ability to mitigate change
- irrigation still needs to be reduced and water recycling/smart irrigation should be implemented
- attitudes must change as Americans believe they have a right to water and don't believe the views of climate change scientists should change their lifestyles
47
what conflicts are happening between different players towards the Colorado?
- cali gov + native americans
- cali gov + Mexico
- cali gov + environmental conservation scientists
- farmers in cali + native americans
- farmers in cali + environmental conservation scientists
- local pop and climate change scientists
- local pop and environmental conservation scientists
48
explain the conflicts with farmers though the colorado
- they need enough water to irrigate crops to maintain high yields, change needs tof be affordable to maintain profits
- the colorado river irrigates 1.4 million ha of farmland
- hotter summers mean higher evapotranspiration and therefore a greater demand for water
49
what are the issues of water transfer projects for both the source and the receiving area?
source area
- Experiences drop in flow of up to 60% as a result of diversion/transfer
- River experiences low flow and becomes polluted increasing impact on ecosystem's salinity
- Climate change can combine with lower flows to lead to water scarcity
receiving area
- Availability of water simply leads to greater use
- Promotes unsustainable irrigated farming by agri-business
- Nitrate eutrophication, salination and ecosystem destruction. Pollution transfer.
50
explain the smart irrigation in china and australia
- not a large scale event
- drip feed ensures water goes directly into soil next to roots to minimise evaporation losses
- suboptimal water amounts of water means yields are not significantly reduced but less water is required
- 6 year study of wheat in north china plain used 25% less water but only minor reduction in yield
- fruit trees in Australia saved 60% of water and no loss to yield
51
what are the positives and negatives of the holistic water management in Israel
Positives:
- Netafim says their crops yield 15% more due to the few amounts of fertilisers needed and therefore lower chemical pollution, drip tech releases fewer GGs than irrigation, impact on global warming, opted towards natural growth
- through recycling sewage water for irrigation it means that it will reduce the continued extraction of groundwater, conserving water supplies, 65% of crops use this
- Israel’s agtech sector is attracting major investment, AI and smart irrigation, Israeli agrifood startups secured $759 million in funding, high innovation, futurity,
Negatives:
- They still have to import 50 million tonnes of water per year from turkey through the Manavgat project
- Through setting the pricing high to discourage waste this could lead to some people and farmers not being able to afford the water, rise in groundwater abstraction and consuming dirty water, social impacts, health problems
52
explain the positives and negatives of the rainwater harvesting jars in Uganda
Positives:
- Allows for futurity as once constructed the jars can provide a stable water source for many years, also allows for environmental protection due to the use of local resources
- Means that they no longer need to travel long distances for water that is unclean leading to an array of social benefits, girls in education, lower health problems, economic benefits
Negatives:
- still relies on natural rainy season which is becoming uncertain with climate change
- bottom up strategy that is only on a very local level and so in terms of its overall impacts on water security it is rather minimal
53
explain the positives and negatives of Singapore's sustainable water management
Positives:
- leakages have been cut by 5% and so this will lead to overall economic and environmental benefits
Negatives:
- despite their efforts for sustainable water management they still rely on Malaysia in importing water
Geography May exams
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