1
Q
- Lead to the transformation of one chemical substance into another
- these changes involve the movement and exchange of electrons and breaking of “old” bonds and formation of “new” bonds
- new products in reactions often become reactants in the next reaction
- metabolic pathway
- reactions are often catalyzed by enzymes
A
chemical reactions
2
Q
in biochemistry, a sequence of reactions is called
A
metabolic pathway
3
Q
- reactions proceed through a sequence of transition states
- sometimes between transition states, intermediate products form
- reactions end with a stable end product
- entire series is referred to as a reaction sequence
A
the “in between”
4
Q
the place in a chemical reaction that corresponds to the highest energy point in a reaction diagram
- least stable point
- can’t be isolated or directly observed
A
transition state
5
Q
real compounds that theoretically could be isolated
-reactions continues to form the most stable product
A
intermediates
6
Q
types of chemical reactions (3)
A
- oxidation- reduction
2 addition - hydrolysis
7
Q
reactions that involve the transfer of electrons from one species to another
A
oxidation-reduction reactions
8
Q
atom or group of atoms is added to a molecule
A
addition reactions
9
Q
water molecule breaks chemical bonds
A
hydrolysis reactions
10
Q
oxidation reduction reactions (3)
A
- oxidation
- ethanol oxidation
- reduction reactions
11
Q
- an atom is oxidized when it loses an electron
- makes atom more positive
A
oxidation
12
Q
- most intoxicating substance in alcoholic beverages
- completely soluble in water
- all ethanol consumed is catabolized (broken down) in two steps in the liver
- conversion of ethanol to ethanal
- -transition state occurs as ethanol is oxidized into ethanal
- -acetaldehyde is oxidized to acetic acid
A
ethanol oxidation
13
Q
- reverse of oxidation reactions
- electrons (and hydrogen) are added to carboxylic acid until an alcohol is created
A
reduction reactions
14
Q
addition reactions (3)
A
- nucleophiles and electrophiles
- formaldehyde + ammonia
- methylene bridge
15
Q
- 1 donates electrons
- the other accepts electrons
- when electrons are donated a new bond is formed
A
nucleophiles and electrophiles
16
Q
- 1 is an electrophile willing to accept electrons
- amines are nucleophiles willing to donate electrons
- for carbon atom to accept electrons; it must simultaneously transfer electrons to the oxygen atom
- inital transition state occurs when _ interacts with _
- hydrogen atom moves from nitrogen -> oxygen
- intermediate product is alcohol amine
- alcohol amine then forms a compound with a carbon nitrogen double bond that is highly reactive
- final product involves the formation of methylene bridge
A
formaldehyde and ammonia
17
Q
one carbon unit feature that forms between two nitrogen atoms present in proteins
-holds decomposing tissues and cells together
A
methylene bridge
18
Q
hydrolysis reactions (1)
A
- hydrolysis
19
Q
- chemical reaction that begins putrefaction
- driven by enzymes
- water is a nucleophile and interacts with electrophilic compounds to begin the putrefaction process
A
hydrolysis
20
Q
most living matter is made up of four elements
A
1 hydrogen
- oxygen
- nitrogen
- carbon
21
Q
4 major macromolecules
A
- carbs
- lipids
- nucleic acids
- proteins
22
Q
water characteristics (5)
A
- 60% of adult mass
- polar
- forms hydrogen bonds
- excellent vehicle
- amphoteric
23
Q
water in our body (3) characteristics
A
1 protects joints and spinal cord
- starts the digestive process
- allows our body to excrete waste
24
Q
water & decomposition (2)
A
- hydrolysis forms new products
2. degradation of proteins leads to the formation of amino acids
25
a compound of hydrogen, carbon, and oxygen that is an aldehyde or ketone derivative of polyhydroxyl alcohol
- carbon water
- created via photosynthesis
- formula is Cn(H20)n
carbohydrates
26
functional groups of macromolecules (3)
1. aldehyde or ketone derivatives of polyhydroxy alcohols
2. aldose carbs have aldehyde functional group
3. ketose carbs have a ketone functional group
27
subcategories of carbohydrates (4)
1. monosaccharides
2. oligosaccharides
3. disaccharides
4. polysaccharides
28
simple sugars with 3-9 carbons
- ribose
- deoxyribose
- glucose
monosaccharides
29
long chain of 2-10 monosaccharides linked together
oligosaccharides
30
a type of oligosaccharides with 2 monosaccharides
-maltose
lactose
-sucrose (most commonly purified organic chemical in the world)
disaccharides
31
10+ monosaccharides linked together
| -stores energy in the form of glycogen
polysaccharides
32
latin word for sugar
saccharide
33
aldose is a monosaccharide containing
an aldehyde functional groups
34
ketose is a monosaccharide containing
a ketone group
35
carbohydrate suffix
OSE
36
glucose is also called
blood sugar
37
a naturally occurring molecule that includes fat, waxes, sterols, and phospholipids
- fats, steroids, glycerides, phospholipids, and hormones
- aliphatic nature
- lack of polarity
- amphiphilic (hydrophilic + lipophilic)
- some essentials can't be produced by the body and must be drawn from diets
lipids
38
functions of lipids (3)
1. storage of energy
2. function as neurotransmitters
3. acts as a structural component of cell membranes
39
subcategories of lipids (3)
1. standard lipids
2. complex lipids
3. sterols
40
produce a fatty acid and an alcohol when hydrolised
- fats, oils and waxes
- fats and oils are triglycerides
- waxes are esters of fatty acids
- beeswax, lanolin, carnauba
standard lipids
41
have multiple functional groups
- phospholipids
- sphingolipids
- glycolipids
complex lipids
42
lipids with a steroid backbone
- cholesterol
- some hormones are steroids
sterols
43
a type of lipid formed from the combination of unsaturated and/or saturated fatty acids and high molecular weight alcohols
wax
44
found in the brain and play a role in transmission and cell recongition
sphingolipids
45
lipids with a carb attached that provides energy
glycolipids
46
precursor for many beneficial compounds
cholesterol
47
the hydrolysis of a fat and a strong base to produce glycerol and the salt of a fatty acid
- trhydroxy glycerol and fatty acid salt are the resulting product
- fats are sometimes referred to as soaps
- this is how body fat decomposes
- requires moisture and bactericidal activity
saponification
48
wax like material produced by saponification of body fat
- creamy off white brown material
- exacerbated by alkaline soil
- adipocere formation occurs instead of some of the putrefactive changes when a body is submerged in water or in a moist grave
adipocere (grave wax)
49
a protein that acts as a biological catalyst
- drives almost all metabolic processes within the cell
- without these, biological reactions would occur too slowly to sustain life
- activity is influenced by temperature and hydrogen ion concentrations
enzymes
50
metabolic processes (2)
1. catabolism
| 2. anabolism
51
breaking down process
| -produces precursor molecules
catabolism
52
building up process
| -building of proteins, carbs, lipids, and nucleic acids
anabolism
53
breakdowns of large polymeric compounds in food that are broken down enzymatically into monomer subunits (3)
-these compounds are then reabsorbed into the walls of the stomach and small intestine and eventually into the bloodstream where they are used as building blocks for other molecules and as a source of energy (most commonly glucose)
1. proteins to amino acids
2. polysaccharides to sugars
3. fats to fatty acids + glycerol
54
enzyme terminology (3)
1. substrate
2. enzyme inhibitor
3. autolysis
55
the material upon which an enzyme acts
substrate
56
a molecule that binds to an enzyme and stops its activity
substrate
57
a molecule that binds to an enzyme and stops its activity
enzyme inhibitor
58
self-digestion or self-destruction of the body by enyzmes
autolysis
59
the building blocks of proteins that contain an amino group and a carboxyl group
- amphoteric
- 20 amino acids are required to sustain human life
- nonessential amino acids are those that can be made by our bodies
- essential amino acids have to come from our diet
- second only to water in their contribution to human muscles, cells, and other tissues
amino acid overview
60
amino acid formation (3)
1. proteins from food/drinks are broken down into smaller protein chains
2. these chains are further broken down until they are small enough to enter our bloodstream
- eventually broken down into amino acids
61
a substance capable of maintaining a constant pH by neutralizing both acids and base
- mixture of acids and bases
- carboxyl group serves as the acid
- amino group serves as the conjugate base
buffers
62
peptides (5)
1. peptide
2. dipeptide
3 tripeptide
4. polypeptide
5. protein
63
a compound containing two ro more amino acids in a chain
peptide
64
two amino acids for peptides
dipeptide
65
3 amino acids for peptides
tripeptide
66
long, continuous unbranched peptide chains
polypeptide
67
50+ amino acids for peptides
proteins
68
nitrogenous bases
- heterocyclic amines
- two subcats;
- --purines
- -- pyrimidines
- building blocks of DNA and RNA when linked to a sugar
- form bases via hydrogen bonding
nucleobases
69
a biological component that is a polymer of many amino acids
- very diverse compounds
- large, polymeric macromolecules
- fibrous proteins provide structure to skin, muscle fibers, and organs
- globular proteins transport and act as biological catalysts
protein overviews
70
protein functions (8)
```
1. catalysts
2 hormones to regulate cell growth
3. make up muscle fibers
4. contribute to the composition of antibodies
5. regulate cell responses
6. store substances
7. formation of skin and bone
8. transportation of substances around the body
```
71
a bond formed from a dehydration reaction between the amino group on one amino acid with the carboxyl group on another amino acid
- a chemical bond that links 2 proteins together **
-how amino acids link together
peptide bond
72
properties of proteins (3)
1 imbibition
2. coagulation
3. hydrolysis
73
the swelling and softening of tissues and organs as a result of absorbing moisture from adjacent sources
imbibition
74
the process of converting soluble protein to insoluble protein by physical or chemical means
coagulation
75
a chemical reaction in which a substance is broken down or dissociated by water
hydrolysis
76
protein breakdown (2)
1. denaturation
| 2. putrefaction
77
the disruption and breakdown of a protein by heat or chemicals
denaturation
78
the decomposition of proteins by the enzymatic activity of anaerobic bacteria
putrefaction
79
- proteins lose all structure with the exception of the primary structure
- can be caused by external force, extreme heat, harsh acid base conditions, an organic solvent, etc.
- destroys the function of the protein
- often also causes proteins to lose their solubility
denaturation
PIMS - Embalming 1
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