What are Tinbergen’s proximate questions?
— describes the immediate, “how” causes — such as the mechanisms or events happening in an organism’s lifetime
What are the internal and external stimuli that cause the behaviour? (Physiological and neurological mechanisms)
How does the behaviour develop during the lifetime of an individual (learning and genetic factors)?
What are Tinbergen’s Ultimate Questions?
— describe the long-term, “why” causes, such as evolutionary pressures and fitness consequences
What is the evolutionary history of the behaviour (evolving over many generations)?
What is the survival or reproductive advantage of the behaviour (organism’s fitness)?
What is the neuronal basis of learning?
Learning involves changes in the strength of synaptic connections between neurons, known as synaptic plasticity.
What is synaptic plasticity?
The ability of synapses to strengthen or weaken over time, depending on activity levels.
What is long-term potentiation (LTP)?
A long-lasting increase in synaptic strength following repeated stimulation — a key process in memory formation.
Where does LTP commonly occur?
In the hippocampus, a brain region involved in learning and memory.
What is long-term depression (LTD)?
A long-lasting decrease in synaptic strength caused by low-frequency stimulation.
How does repeated practice affect neurons?
It strengthens neural pathways, making responses faster and more efficient.
What neurotransmitters are important in learning?
Glutamate (excitatory), dopamine (reward), and acetylcholine (attention and memory).
How is dopamine related to learning?
It reinforces behaviours by signalling reward and motivation, promoting repetition of successful actions.
What role does the cerebellum play in learning?
It coordinates motor learning and fine-tunes movement through feedback.
What role does the prefrontal cortex play in learning?
It supports decision-making, planning, and working memory.
How do genes influence behaviour?
Genes provide the biological basis for traits like temperament, intelligence, and stress responses.
How does the environment influence behaviour?
Environmental factors such as upbringing, culture, and experience shape how genes are expressed and behaviours develop.
What is the nature vs nurture debate?
It concerns the relative contribution of genetic inheritance (nature) and environmental factors (nurture) to behaviour.
What is gene-environment interaction?
When environmental factors influence how genetic potentials are expressed in behaviour.
Give an example of gene-environment interaction.
A child genetically predisposed to anxiety may only develop symptoms in a stressful environment.
What is epigenetics?
The study of how environmental factors alter gene expression without changing DNA sequences.
How can early experiences affect brain development?
Early stimulation strengthens neural connections; neglect can weaken or eliminate them.
How do identical twin studies help us understand genes and environment?
They compare similarities between twins raised together vs apart to estimate genetic influence.
What is heritability?
A measure of how much of the variation in a trait is due to genetic differences among individuals.
What does it mean for behaviour to be based on self-interest?
Individuals act in ways that maximise their survival and reproductive success.
What is payoff in behavioural terms?
The benefit an organism gains from a behaviour, often in terms of fitness or resources.
What is the principle of maximising payoff?
Animals choose actions that yield the greatest benefit relative to cost.
