WOMEN

Question 1

Ways the federal govt helped social rights

Answer 1

• 1963 - study published and commissioned by Kennedy called report on American women -> highly educated women worked on survey, statistics of unequal pay/opportunities, low political participation
• 1960s - movement for change -> reforming democratic administration led by Kennedy, new frontier gave impression that change was needed after long time of internal stagnation
• 1963 - assassination of Kennedy -> Johnsons great society reconsideration role of women

Question 2

Ways Supreme Court helped social rights

Answer 2

• 1926 - import of birth control devices made legal
• 1973 - abortion legalised, Roe v wade - Roe and female lawyers challenged on constitutional grounds - privacy protected under 9th amendment -> Texas acting unconstitutionally
  
  • Put rights of mother over rights of foetus - court ruled foetus not a person whose rights needed to be protected in earlier stages of pregnancy
  • Seen as supporting rights of women/control over their own bodies

Question 3

Ways women themselves helped social rights

Answer 3

• 1837 First female anti-slavery convention - >model for organisations to demand rights for women
• 1848 first convention to discuss women’s rights in Seneca fall, New York - discussed coalition, civil and religious conditions and rights of women -> main instigators of convention were middle class white women
• 1967 now conference - reproductive rights, rights to abortion
• even breakaway groups like women’s equality league action (which rejected now support for abortion law reform) pressed hard for equality in education - action against 300 schools/colleges that discriminated against women
• 1970s - 80000-100000 women were participants in womens groups -> wider social agenda (health, abortion, marriage/divorce, rights for older/working women), second wave feminism
• 1980s - expansion of education for women -> nearly half of undergraduate/masters degrees going to women
• 1870 more boys than girls were in school - by 1920 it became equal, 2/3 of white children of both genders being educated
• 1890 more female high school graduates than male - black American girls did less well but went from 10% in 1870 to 30% in 1914
• Proportion of female teachers increased from 60% to 86% - proportion of women in higher education was lower -> although number of women with degrees doubled, only 30% of uni degrees were awarded to women by 1920
• Flapper era - women wore less restricting clothes, shorter hair, smoked, short skirts/daring behaviour -> more independent young women in 1920s going against Victorian norms
• 1986 - half of uni graduates were female
• Women in positions of authority was not unusual

Question 4

Ways wars helped social rights

Answer 4

• Civil war - increased participation in public affairs, greater confidence/expectations of women being seen as significant outside the home

Question 5

Ways individual states helped social rights

Answer 5

• 1921 - Wisconsin passed equal rights legislation

Question 6

Ways federal govt hindered social rights

Answer 6

• 19th amendment seemed like confirmation that women were free and equal citizens - but still faced discrimination eg wages, social attitudes, ability to exercise rights
• Right to vote after ww1 not accompanied by comprehensive change in women’s social, economic and legal status

Question 7

Ways Supreme Court hindered social rights

Answer 7

• 1912 decision in Supreme Court declared state regulation was legal - by 1920 over 75% of states passed regulations restricting women’s hours of work

Question 8

Ways women themselves hindered social rights

Answer 8

• Divided opinion in womens groups - some feared equal rights would revoke protection for women already gained (eg working hours)
• Women were divided - even during wartime Conservative women’s groups didn’t support greater help for working mothers/equality of opportunity-> war shouldn’t erode traditional family values

Question 9

Ways wars hindered social rights

Answer 9

• Inter war campaigns - struggle for independent citizenship, right to own land, right to run for public office, right to register as voters in some states, right to have access to all posts in civil service, right to serve on juries
• Cold War brought about period of conservatism - campaigning for equal rights was supportive of communism
• Women rewarded for war work through offering prosperity - labour saving technology, entrusted to bring up children -> stagnation and regression

Question 10

Ways societal attitudes hindered social rights

Answer 10

• right to vote -> inequalities remained in place even though vote implied women were equal citizens
• Society didn’t accept women social/economic equality to men - shouldn’t aspire to have same political participation/opportunities for power as men
• employment old culture remained - proportion of science/engineering remained lower, less than 8% of engineers were women in 1990
• Flapper era - women becoming sex objects to attract men, increased double standards instead of independence/emancipation, pressure for women to be fashionable before marriage then demure housewives

Question 11

Ways individual states hindered social rights

Answer 11

• right to vote by 1960s - some states still didn’t allow married women to sign contracts independently or run own businesses without special permission
• 1876 - Massachusetts first state regulation of womens working hours, 10 hours
• By 1900 - 36% of states had regulations about female working hours -> ranging from 8 to 10

Question 12

Ways federal govt helped political rights

Answer 12

• By 1919 - Congress willing to pass 19th amendment giving all women right to vote (effective from 1920)
• Political parties created womens committees - keen to mobilise female voters, by 1940 women achieved substantial representation of party committees only in a minority number of states
• By 1941 - eligible to vote due to a constitutional amendment
• 1961 Kennedy appointed special commission on status of women led by Eleanor Roosevelt - recommended equal pay act passed in 1963 (seemed to make constitutional amendment unnecessary)
• Nixon accepted resolution introduced for equal rights amendment - mirror 19th amendment and be ratified by states, 30 states accepted amendment -> opposition to it becoming law was effective

Question 13

Ways Supreme Court helped political rights

Answer 13

• 1869 - women given right to vote in Wyoming
• 1870 - women given right to vote in utah
• 1917 - New York and Illinois enfranchised women
• 1918 - South Dakota, Michigan, Omaha women enfranchised, there were already states that enfranchised women before 1920

Question 14

Ways women themselves helped political rights

Answer 14

• 1874 women’s Christian temperance union founded -> 1880 - grown to national organisation in 24 states (27000 membership),1880s - 168000 members, 1920 - 800000 members
• Women active in rural protests - grange movement and farmers alliance -> speaking at public meetings, Elizabeth lease (leading member of populist party - opposed to business) organised protests in Kansas against railways
• 1875-95 gilded age - 1883 women’s national Indian association for Native American rights formed
• Nawsa targeted anti suffrage senators - some defeated
• Eleanor Roosevelt pushed for more women in public office - most significant appointment was Frances Perkins as secretary for labour and member of cabinet, women significantly represented in expanded govt agencies of new deal
• By 1945 - more evidence of female involvement in national politics -> both parties campaigned for womens support
  • Increase in women in state legislatures from 144 to 228 -> some increase in women in congress/public office but it wasn’t extensive
• 1966 - national organisation for women founded -> women quick to bring legal cases on basis of cra against discrimination, wider remit than previous organisations
• February 1970 - supporters picketed congress, disputed congressional committee considering lowering voting age to raise equality issue
• August 1972 - strike of 20000 women calling for full equality -> Friedans advocacy, congresswoman Martha Griffiths, direct action/demonstrations marked most significant expansion of militancy since 1890-1917
• 1972 - resolution introduced by Martha griffiths called for equal rights amendment passed house -> edited version exempting women from conscription passed congress
• 1993 - 7 female senators in congress -> increased political representation

Question 15

Ways wars helped political rights

Answer 15

• WW1 - allied propaganda of liberal alliance with France and uk (against Germany) changed opinion -> how could they fight for democracy but keep women disenfranchised

Question 16

Ways federal govt hindered political rights

Answer 16

• Limits of new deal
  
  • federal agencies were largely run by men
  • Political rights didn’t translate into being able to achieve social justice in new deal legislation - discriminated against mothers/married women to boost employment for men
  • Black American women suffered racial discrimination in social security in south
  • Built in inequality in pensions - new deal social legislation relied on assumption that men worked and women looked after the home

Question 17

Way Supreme Court hindered political rights

Answer 17

• 1875 - Virginia minor sued state of Missouri for preventing her from voting -> Supreme Court ruled women not allowed national voting rights but states could give rights

Question 18

Ways women themselves hindered political rights

Answer 18

• Division between organisations
  
  • 1869 formed national woman suffrage association -> membership restricted to women, no longer allied with abolitionists, campaigned for national change, Susan b Anthony, Elizabeth Cody Stanton
  • American woman suffrage association -> included men in membership, still linked to abolitionists, aimed to get women voting in individual states for state legislatures, Lucy stone and Julia ward Howe
• 1871-72 - Susan b Anthony and 150 women tried to vote -> ignoring rules by polling officials they registered to vote and voted, arrested and tried for electoral malpractice (fined)
• 1911 - national association opposed to woman suffrage -> one of largest groups opposed to suffrage, supported by special journal (the remonstrance), feared political equality would work against interests of women who were happy with existing status (angels of the hearth and cherished by their menfolk)
• Women didn’t flock to take advantage of vote - turnout in 1920 was elections low -> league of women voters spent a lot of time/energy persuading money to vote, not many former suffragists join, only 5-10% of members of nawsa joined lwv
• 1890 - suffrage movement revolved with merging of nwsa and awsa into nawsa -> still remained different ideas of who would be eligible (universal suffrage or restriction to white elites), nawsa didn’t encourage black Americans participation despite there being growing interest among this ethnic group (fear of loss of support)
• In 20 years after 19th amendment there were only 2 female governors of states - both standing in standing in for their husbands
• Daughters of American revolution reemerged during Nixon - move towards conservatism led by Reagan prevented amendment being ratified - opinion polls show less support for amendment in 1980s than in 1970s

Question 19

Ways societal attitudes hindered political rights

Answer 19

• Southern organisations unwilling to give black American women the vote
• No complete agreement about what women would be eligible to vote
• Attitudes changed a lot but not universally - 1871-2 dismissal of women’s attempt to register and vote seemed quite far from when women vote/elected in 1941, however attitudes to women working, equal pay was similar to 1870
• Ability of ethnic minority women to participate in voting/office holding in south didn’t change greatly from 1860s - ability of southern states to maintain restrictions on black Americans registration/voting (only ended in 1960s)
• Nixons silent majority asserted itself - Conservative middle class Americans who opposed social change and didn’t join anti war demonstrations

Question 20

Ways individual states hindered political rights

Answer 20

• Southern democrats - feared women in politics would introduce labour laws -> might hurt south, work against restrictions imposed on black Americans eg Jim Crow laws
• Many black American women in south could vote in theory but not practice - restrictions in literacy test, threats of verbal/physical abuse and harassment
• Some states were slow to amend legislation allowing women to be candidates for public office - Oklahoma prohibited this until 1942

Question 21

Ways women themselves helped economic rights

Answer 21

• NOW brought legal action against employers who broke 1967 executive order against gender discrimination
• After 1865 - considerable expansion of number of women in labour market -> 10% of free women held jobs in 1840, increased to 15% in 1870 and 24% in 1924, biggest increase in white collar work/professions
• Range of female employment changed - end of civil war 60% of female workers were domestic servants and 1% in white collar jobs, 1920 changed to 18% servants and 40% in clerical/professional jobs

Question 22

Ways wars helped economic rights

Answer 22

• WW1 - 3 million more women working than 1865 - diversity of employment increased with heavy industry and transport
• WW1 - numbers in farming grew due to demand for more food -> newcomers to this work were called farmerettes, however there was a well established tradition of women in rural occupations
• WW1 - 30000 women worked directly for armed forces - less change as work centred on domestic service eg laundry and nursing
• WW1 - over 20000 women travelled overseas to support armed forces - members of ymca, Red Cross and Salvation Army but army didn’t recruit female doctors -> 358 women killed overseas, more suffered injuries/developed severe illness
• WW2 - more number of women went to work -> previous restrictions on women working fell away as factories/workshops needed labour for govt contracts
  • WW2 - women worked in more skilled jobs - increasing in confidence and status
  • WW2 - Propaganda gave impression of expansion of opportunity/responsibility for women -> special womens advisory committee advise on utilisation of women for the war effort
• War accelerated higher levels of female employment -> increased women’s confidence in tackling more demanding work but didn’t mark radical change
• less prejudice against direct participation, 100000 women served in armed forces in womens army corps, navy and womens air force
• 6 million women entered workforce - over 1/3 of labour force as war absorbed 16 million men

Question 23

Ways federal govt hindered economic rights

Answer 23

• Right to vote after ww1 not accompanied by comprehensive change in women’s social, economic and legal status
• Although progressive legislation made more equal pay levels mandatory - problem in enforcing it, unions put interests of male members first -> permissive legislation (ruled but not followed up)

Question 24

Ways wars hindered economic rights

Answer 24

• Increased economic activity during war led to period of prosperity - led to greater domestication of women, reduction of social issues that women campaigned for
  • By end 1946 - 2 million women fired from heavy industry, 800000 lost jobs within 2 months of end of war against Japan 1945
  
  • Female workers didn’t all return home -> had to accept lower rates of pay, lower status, exclusion from key jobs now seen as too heavy for them
  • Gap between men and women’s pay increased - new consumerism tried to take advantage of women sex appeal, flirting was only way to get some jobs
• WW1 - work was in traditional roles - after war many women didn’t stay in their jobs in new industry, under pressure to give up their jobs to men returning from the war
• WW2 - No parity in pay - 1944 average women’s salary was $31.21 week for manufacturing work but men $54.65 week

Question 25

Ways societal attitudes hindered economic rights

Answer 25

- Women unable to secure childcare/cheap restaurants that British women achieved during war - still expected to combine domestic responsibilities with tiring work - Women had to accept unequal pay - Women expected to combine work with domestic responsibilities - concentration of women in traditional caring roles (nursing, teaching, social work) -> public political roles mirrored this - Limited number of women in decision making positions even 70 years after gained right to make political decision of voting - Despite equal pay act - women paid 32% less than men, took until 1984 for major party to choose women as vice presidential candidate - Professional employment - teaching and nursing was greatest, then charity/welfare -> stereotype that womens work was linked to domestic concerns predominated - No equality in men’s and womens labour although wages rose - little attempt to provide childcare facilities to help women with dual responsibilities

Question 26

Other ways economic rights were hindered eg depression, unions, race, politics

Answer 26

- Although they had national council of negro women there was no consultation with black American women - little opportunity to join armed force or take on managerial roles - Black American women suffered more in terms of wages - expected they would work even if paid low - Lack of political equality mirrored in economic equality - 1956 female wages 63% of men, 1973 fallen to 57% - daycare not adequate for working mothers -> no tax relief for children util 1977 although it was already established in uk - Growth in union organisations - more strikes/demands for better wages and conditions -> kept in proportion, only 2% of trade unionists were women by 1914 every though 25% of female employment was in factories - Great depression - Married women found it difficult to get jobs - some states stopped married women from taking jobs in any publicly run institutions - Depression put pressure on wages and it hit black American women hard - small progress made in 1920s reversed by depression

Question 27

List social right turning points

Answer 27

Positive - Civil war - increased participation in public affairs, greater confidence -> changing social attitudes towards womens capabilities - As men were at war women took on more responsibilities - Roe v wade - constitution protects abortions - Protection of womens rights, had been sexualised after flapper era, links to economic rights (control number over children and therefore working life, role isnt just to work in home - leads to economic independence) - Flapper era - movement of independence, break from norms -> turning point for women as individuals rather than attitudes towards them - Backlash/response shows importance in need for change - WW1 and WW2 - change in social attitudes towards women, women as individuals growth in confidence - Have to take on greater responsibility Negatives - Post WW2/Cold War - reinforcing of women’s place in the home - Women no longer need to take leading role as they did in the war, women’s activist considered communist during Cold War

Question 28

List political turning points

Answer 28

Positives - 1920 19th amendment - large change in rights, acknowledging women - Sign of change in social attitudes, which induced political change - Actually had a lot of negatives - registration, childcare, pressure from husbands etc, many states tried to prevent them from voting - New deal - Eleanor Roosevelt pushes for more women in public office - Changes grouped together with changes for black Americans and workers, cant give rights to those other groups and still neglect women - Civil war - women taking on more political roles, protesting etc - Temperance and other causes Negatives - 1920 19th amendment - de jure, women don’t flock to vote, still poor female political representation - Emerged as reward for war effort - not seen as a right for them to have otherwise - Limited in short term, seen as end to womens equality (that’s all they need, nothing more) - Cold War - reduction in advocating for causes - War against communism, fighting for social issues considered communist

Question 29

List economic turning points

Answer 29

Positives - WW2 - women had more direct involvement in war effort -> in branches of army - America more involved in war then ww1 - 1964 civil rights act - great society and new frontier - Intended to help black Americans but also encompassed women