1
Q
According to Sigmund Freud (1856–1939)
the idea that people believe in God because they wish for protection, comfort, and meaning — not because God is proven to exist.
A
religion as wish fulfillment
Freud: RELIGION IS AN ILLUSION ROOTED IN WISHFUL THINKING.
🧠 Religion as wish fulfillment = the idea that people believe in God because they wish for protection, comfort, and meaning — not because God is proven to exist.
🔄 Bonus: A contrasting view (C. S. Lewis); Lewis argued the opposite:
If humans naturally desire God, maybe that desire was put inside us on purpose.
So wishful thinking might actually guide us toward something real.
2
Q
adj
very large in size, amount, or importance.
A
enormous
/ɪˈnɔːrməs/
- Even though Sigmund Freud was a psychiatrist rather than a philosopher, his influence on philosophy has been enormous.
3
Q
a 1927 book by Sigmund Freud, the founder of psychoanalysis, in which Freud discusses religion’s origins, development, and its future. He provides a psychoanalysis of religion as a false belief system.
A
The Future of an Illusion
(German: Die Zukunft einer Illusion)
4
Q
Who said that God is a projection of ideal human qualities and that religion comes from human fears and wishes?
A
Ludwig Feuerbach in his book: The Essence of Christianity 1841
- FREUD SUPPLEMENTS FEUERBACH’S CRITIQUE WITH A PSYCHOLOGICAL EXPLANATION DRAWN FROM HIS OWN THEORY OF CHILDHOOD DEVELOPMENT. (The Philosophy Book, Gregory Bassham pg 528)
5
Q
verb
to cover somebody/something with drops of liquid, dirt, etc., especially by accident
= splash
A
scatter
/ˈspætər/
- Fountains of melting rock scattered burning land under clouds of ash.
6
Q
verb
to move or rise with many small air pockets, often making a soft, popping sound
A
bubble
/ˈbʌbl/
- At first, nothing lived on Earth It was a very hot and noisy place. Choking gas exploded from volcanoes and oceans of lava bubbled around . the globe.
7
Q
adj
moving violently and constantly, with strong, swirling motion
A
churning
/ˈtʃɝː.nɪŋ/
- massive rocks from space,called meteoroids, smashed into churning seas.
8
Q
noun
a small piece of rock in space that would become a meteor if it entered the earth’s atmosphere
Topics Space c2
A
meteoroid
/ˈmiːtiərɔɪd/
- Most meteoroids are tiny, fragile, ice-dust mixtures from comets.
comet vs astriod vs meteor vs meteorite:
☄️ comet: Ice + dust; glowing tail near the Sun
🪨 asteroid: Rock/metal; no tail, stays in space
✨ meteor: Asteroid fragment entering Earth’s atmosphere (streak of light)
🪨➡️🌍 meteorite: A meteor that reaches the ground
From Greek meteōros = “high in the air” / meta = “above” / aeirein = “to lift, raise” / ‑oid = “resembling / like” (from Greek ‑oeidēs)
9
Q
one specific kind of hydrothermal vent that releases dark, metal‑rich fluids which look like black smoke.
“undersea chimneys blowing black minerals”
A
black smoker
- Many researchers propose that life on Earth originated near black smoker hydrothermal vents, where mineral‑rich fluids and steep chemical gradients could have powered the first metabolic reactions.”
10
Q
verb
to twist and turn your body or part of it with quick, short movements
= wiggle
A
wriggle
/ˈrɪɡl/
- The baby was wriggling around on my lap.
- She wriggled her toes.
wriggle vs wiggle:
🪱 wriggle: Twist your whole body to escape.
🐛 wiggle: Move back and forth in small, playful motions.
11
Q
verb
- to beat or move with a strong, regular rhythm
- to be full of excitement or energy
A
pulsate
/ˈpʌlseɪt/
1.“From across the galaxy, neutron stars seem to pulsate as their sweeping radiation beams flash past Earth.”
- pulsating rhythms
- a pulsating headache
- a pulsating game
12
Q
adjective (informal)
not properly fixed in place so that it moves from side to side
A
wobbly
/ˈwɑːbli/
- a chair with a wobbly leg
- a wobbly tooth
13
Q
verb
[transitive, intransitive] to eat something very fast, in a way that people consider rude or greedy
=wolf
A
gobble
/ˈɡɑːbl/
- Don’t gobble your food like that!
- They gobbled down all the sandwiches.
14
Q
adjective
wet and soft, usually in a way that is unpleasant
A
soggy
(comparative soggier, superlative soggiest)
/ˈsɔːɡi/
- soggy bread
15
Q
first and largest mass extinction in Earth’s history, often called “the Great Dying.”
A
Permian–Triassic extinction
, which happened about 251.9 million years ago
16
Q
the mass extinction 66 million years ago was the fifth of the “Big Five” mass extinctions.
A
The Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction
- About 66 million years ago, a massive asteroid impact triggered a global extinction event that ended the age of dinosaurs
17
Q
adj
not complete; good in some parts, but not in others
A
patchy
/ˈpætʃi/
- Over time, less rain fell and forests became more patchy. Apes that started using just two legs to cross more open land, survived better. They evolved into the first humans.
18
Q
the nickname for a famous 3.2‑million‑year‑old fossil skeleton belonging to the early human species Australopithecus afarensis
A
Lucy
- She was discovered in 1974 in Hadar, Ethiopia, by paleoanthropologist Donald Johanson and his team
19
Q
noun
a large fish with four leg-like fins that was one of the first creatures to crawl out of water and walk on land. It is extinct.
A
Tiktaalik
- A large, extinct fish‑like creature with four limb‑like fins that lived about 375 million years ago. It had features of both fish and early tetrapods, making it one of the key transitional species between life in water and life on land.
from Inuktitut ᑎᒃᑖᓕᒃ (tiktaalik), meaning “large freshwater fish”
20
Q
an extinct sea creature that had a tough skeleton on the outside of its body, divided into three parts. It lived over 250 million years ago.
A
Trilobite
from Greek: tri‑ = three / lobos = lobe
21
Q
Geology . adjective
Earth’s earliest and longest span of time
A
Precambrian
- Precambrian covers everything from Earth’s formation (~4.6 billion years ago) up to the start of the Cambrian Period. (~538 million years ago)
from pre-: before
latin cambria: latin name of Wales (where Cambrian rocks were first studied)
22
Q
refers to a famous challenge by the biologist J.B.S. Haldane. When asked what could potentially disprove the theory of evolution, he famously replied, “Fossil rabbits in the Precambrian!”
A
Precambrian rabbit
- Precambrian rocks are hundreds of millions to billions of years older than any mammals.
- A rabbit fossil there would break the entire evolutionary timeline.
- So it became the go‑to illustration of what a theory‑breaking discovery would look like.
23
Q
adjective
able to be proved to be false
#unfalsifiable
A
falsifiable
/ˈfɑːl.sə.faɪ.ə.bəl/
- Precambrian rabbit is often used to show that evolution is a falsifiable scientific theory. It isn’t just a “guess” that scientists refuse to change; it is based on a specific, chronological order of life. If that order were proven wrong by an out-of-place fossil, the theory would have to be fundamentally rewritten or discarded.
- All good science must be falsifiable.
24
Q
A rapid evolutionary radiation beginning around 538.8 million years ago, during which most major animal body plans (phyla) first appeared in the fossil record.
A
Cambrian explosion
(also known as “Cambrian radiation” or “Cambrian diversification”)
25
# verb [usually passive]
to perplex or confuse, especially by complexity
**bewilder**
| /bɪˈwɪldər/
## Footnote
* She was totally **bewildered** by his sudden change of mood.
**confuse vs bewilder:**
* **confuse** → make someone uncertain or unable to understand.
* **bewilder** → make someone deeply confused and disoriented.
bewilder = confuse + overwhelm.
26
# adjective informal
extremely surprising and difficult to understand or imagine
**mind-boggling**
| /ˈmaɪndˌbɑː.ɡəl.ɪŋ/
## Footnote
* the untold millions of species that have already lived and become totally extinct during life’s 3.5 billion year history and organic diversity seems almost **mindboggling**.
27
A major interval of geologic time that began 541 million years ago with the "Cambrian explosion" and ended 252 million years ago with the end-Permian extinction.
| hint: meaning: **Ancient life**
**Paleozoic Era**
| /ˌpeɪ.li.əˈzoʊ.ɪk ˈɪr.ə/
## Footnote
**Major Milestones**:
* Development of first fish, land plants, insects, and reptiles.
* Colonization of land by plants and animals.
* Formation of the supercontinent Pangaea.
**Key Ending**: Concluded with the Permian-Triassic extinction ("The Great Dying"), which wiped out ~95% of marine species.
***Etymology***: word Paleozoic was coined in 1838 by geologist Adam Sedgwick from: paleo‑ = “ancient” / zoē (Greek ζωή) = “life” / ‑ic = adjective ending
So the literal meaning is: ***“Ancient life***.”
28
# noun (literary)
sleep; a time when somebody is sleeping
**slumber**
| /ˈslʌmbər/
## Footnote
* She fell into a deep and peaceful **slumber**.
* The **slumbering** volcano"
**slumber vs sleep:**
* **slumber**→ light, peaceful sleep (soft, poetic).
* **sleep**→ the general act of sleeping (neutral, everyday).
29
# adjective
having or showing a deep respect for God and religion
#impious
#impious
| = devout
**pious**
| /ˈpaɪəs/
## Footnote
* **pious** acts
* New Atheists argue that beliefs should be grounded in rational argument and empirical evidence, not **pious** obedience to doctrine.
Antonym: **impious** /ˈɪmpiəs/
30
A classic argument by William Paley:
If a watch is complex and must have a maker, then nature, which is even more complex, must also have a designer.
**the Watchmaker Analogy**
## Footnote
Ultra‑short hook:
**watch** → maker
**nature** → designer
* Richard Dawkins’s entire book The Blind Watchmaker (1986) is a direct reply to William Paley’s **watchmaker** argument:
Why he calls it The Blind Watchmaker
Dawkins deliberately flips Paley’s analogy:
* **Paley**: watch → watchmaker → God
* **Dawkins**: life → looks designed → but the “watchmaker” is blind (natural selection)
31
# noun
a lack of agreement between facts, opinions, actions, etc.
| تناقض
**contradiction**
| /ˌkɑːntrəˈdɪkʃn/
## Footnote
🟧 Why this is a problem for watchmaker analogy's Paley:
If every complex thing needs a designer, then God, being the most complex of all, would also need a designer.
But Paley wants to stop the chain at God.
So the argument becomes inconsistent:
Rule for nature: complexity → needs a designer
Rule for God: complexity → does not need a designer
That’s a **contradiction**.
32
For billions of years, all life lived only in water, Then, as of about ... million years ago, creatures also inhabited land. Life in these two environments is radically different.
| Period: in the Late Devonian
**365**
## Footnote
* That’s the approximate time when early **tetrapods** (like Tiktaalik’s descendants) began to walk on land.
33
a four-footed animal, especially a member of a group which includes all vertebrates higher than fishes.
**tetrapod**
## Footnote
* 365 MYA. That’s the approximate time when early **tetrapods** (like Tiktaalik’s descendants) began to walk on land.
**tetrapod vs quadropod**:
* **Tetrapod** = any vertebrate descended from a four‑limbed ancestor.
* **Quadruped** = any animal that walks on four feet
🧠 Key insight
A creature can be:
**Tetrapod** but not **quadruped** → humans, birds, whales.
**Quadruped** but not **tetrapod** → some insects (e.g., monarch butterfly uses four walking legs).
***Both*** → dogs, cats, horses.
**Tetrapod** = Greek tetra‑ “four” + ‑pod “foot”.
**Quadruped** = Latin quadri‑ “four” + ‑ped “foot”
34
a geologic period within the Cenozoic Era, lasting from about 66 to 23 million years ago.
It includes three epochs: Paleocene, Eocene, Oligocene
**Paleogene**
| /ˈpā-lē-ə-ˌjēn/
## Footnote
From Greek
palaiós = “old”
geneá = “generation”
So the literal meaning is:
🧠 “old generation”
or
“origin of the old (life forms)”
35
the first eon of Earth’s history
| Earth’s fiery beginning (4.6–4.0 BYA).
**🌋 Hadean Eon**
| hā-ˈdē-ən
## Footnote
* **Start**: ~4.567 billion years ago (Earth forms)
* **End**: 4.031 billion years ago
* **Duration**: ~500–600 million years
* Newly formed Earth with a molten surface, intense volcanism, and heavy asteroid bombardment
* From Hades, Greek for “underworld,” referring to the hellish early conditions
🔥 Hades → Hadean
**Hades** = Greek god of the underworld
**Hadean** = “of Hades,” meaning underworld‑like
Geologists chose the name because early Earth was hellish, molten, and violent.
36
The remains of fossils of microorganisms reveal that life on Earth began perhaps as early as ... billion years ago.
**4.2 billion years ago**
## Footnote
* A 2024 study suggests that the Last Universal Common Ancestor (LUCA) may have emerged around **4.2 billion years ago**, based on genetic modeling.
This is not fossil evidence, but genomic reconstruction. [(Source)](https://www.sciencealert.com/gobsmacking-study-finds-life-on-earth-emerged-4-2-billion-years-ago?utm_source=copilot.com)
but the oldest widely accepted fossils are younger (3.5–3.8 billion years).
37
# verb (formal)
to suggest or accept that something is true so that it can be used as the basis for a theory, etc.
| = posit
**postulate**
| /ˈpɑːstʃəleɪt/
## Footnote
* Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution **postulated** that all life on earth descended from a common ancestor.
38
most recent organism from which all life on Earth today is descended.
**LAST UNIVERSAL COMMON ANCESTOR (LUCA)**
ALSO CALLED THE LAST COMMON ANCESTOR (LCA),
## Footnote
* **LUCA** was not the first life form — just the last shared ancestor before life split into different branches (bacteria, archaea, etc.) APPROXIMATELY 3.9 BILLION YEARS AGO.
39
an organism (= living thing) consisting of one or more cells in which DNA is contained inside a clear nucleus (= central part).
## Footnote
compare [prokaryote](https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/us/definition/english/prokaryote)
**eukaryote**
(also **eucaryote**)
| /ˌjuːˈkæriəʊt/
## Footnote
* There are three major branches of living organisms: the **eukaryotes**, including plants, animals, protozoa, and all others that have a nucleus; and **bacteria** and **archaea**, two branches of organisms that do not have a nucleus.
From Greek: “EU = true, KARYON = nucleus → true nucleus.”
40
# noun (biology)
an organism (= living thing) consisting of just one cell that does not have a clear nucleus (= central part). Most of them are bacteria.
## Footnote
compare [eukaryote](https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/us/definition/english/eukaryote)
**prokaryote**
(also procaryote)
| /ˌprəʊˈkæriəʊt/
## Footnote
* **Prokaryotes** are the most populous living organisms and were the earliest to exist. Bacteria, which represent one of the three domains of life and are the most familiar **prokaryotes**, have a cell wall and assume four major shapes: rod (shown), sphere, spiral, and comma.
from Greek: PRO = before, KARYON = nucleus → before nucleus.”
41
# noun [usually plural] (formal or literary)
person in your family who lived a long time ago
| =ancestor
**forebear**
(also forbear)
| /ˈfɔːrber/
## Footnote
* The first page in the history of biology was undoubtedly “written” when our preliterate **forebears** became consciously aware of the distinction between living and nonliving objects.
**forebear vs ancestor:**
* **Ancestor**: any person in your family line from earlier generations (general term).
* **Forebear**: a more formal or literary term for an ancestor, often implying historical or notable predecessors.
42
Who said the famous line:
“If I have seen further it is by standing on the shoulders of giants.”
**Isaac Newton**
## Footnote
* **Isaac Newton** (1643–1727) was a towering figure of the Scientific Revolution, whose work essentially created the blueprint for modern physics and mathematics.
43
# adjective
existing at or from the beginning of the world
| = primeval
**primordial**
| /praɪˈmɔːrdiəl/
## Footnote
* The Russian biochemist Alexander Oparin and British evolutionary biologist J.B.S. Haldane, working independently, suggested that conditions on the **primordial** Earth were very different from those that now exist and favored chemical reactions leading to the synthesis of organic molecules from inorganic starting materials.
* In Origin of Species, Darwin wrote, “Therefore I should infer from analogy that all the organic beings which have ever lived on this earth have descended from the same one **primordial** form, into which life was first breathed.”
Latin from ***primus*** ‘first’ + ***ordiri*** ‘begin’.
44
the idea that says a tolerant society must sometimes resist intolerant groups to protect freedom? (an idea from the philosopher Karl Popper)
## Footnote
* «جامعهٔ باز باید حق داشته باشد در برابر کسانی که بهدنبال نابودی تساهلاند، عدم تساهل نشان دهد؛ زیرا تساهل نامحدود به نابودی خودِ تساهل میانجامد.»
* تنها استثنای تساهل عدم تساهل در برابر دشمنان تساهل است
**Paradox of tolerance**
## Footnote
* “Unlimited tolerance must lead to the disappearance of tolerance… If we extend unlimited tolerance even to those who are intolerant… then the tolerant will be destroyed, and tolerance with them.”
The Open Society and Its Enemies (1945)
45
# noun
an object in outer space that develops a long, bright tail when it passes near the sun
**comet**
| /ˈkɑːmɪt/
## Footnote
* Halley’s **Comet** is the most famous **comet** in history. It returns every 76 years and has been observed for over 2,000 years.
**comet vs astriod vs meteor vs meteorite:**
☄️ **comet**: Ice + dust; glowing tail near the Sun
🪨 **asteroid**: Rock/metal; no tail, stays in space
✨ **meteor**: Asteroid fragment entering Earth’s atmosphere (streak of light)
🪨➡️🌍 **meteorite**: A meteor that reaches the ground
From Greek **komētēs** = “***long‑haired***”
From kómē = “hair”
Because ancient observers thought the comet’s tail looked like flowing hair in the sky
46
Looking at the stars is like ... ... .. ..
... ... .. looking back in time.
| quote from Carl Sagan?
47
The earlist fossil with a three-boned middle ear is less than ... million years old.
**200**
million years old
## Footnote
* Definitive evidence appears in early mammals from the **Late Jurassic**, roughly ~160 million years ago, which is why it’s often summarized as “less than 200 million years.”
48
to admire and respect somebody/something very much
| = idolize
**revere**
| /rɪˈvɪr/
## Footnote
* Cobra Snakes have found a home where the Hindu villages **revere** them and consider them to be demigods. ([source](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WS6REAwCWRI))
49
# adj
very complicated and difficult to understand
**convoluted**
| /ˈkɑːnvəˌluːtəd/
## Footnote
* every illness we suffer has some historical component. The examples that follow reflect how different branches of the tree of life inside us—from ancient humans, to amphibians and fish, and finally to microbes—come back to pester us today. Each of these examples show that we were not designed rationally, but are products of a **convoluted** history. (Your inner fish. pg 186)
* **convoluted** logic / plot
50
# adj
(especially of prices) too much, or more than is reasonable; very high
**steep**
## Footnote
* Talking comes at a **steep** price: choking and sleep apnea are high on the list of problems we have to live with in order to be able to talk.
* Their rates are pretty **steep**.
51
# verb
to cause (something) to start or happen
**spark**
| /ˈspɑɚk/
## Footnote
* What **sparked** the incredible burst of new life in the Cambrian Period is not clear Perhaps there was more oxygen in the atmosphere, or perhaps a warming climate had something to do with it.
52
# phrasal verb
to kill or destroy (someone or something) completely
**wipe out**
wipe (someone or something) out or wipe out (someone or something)
| /ˈwaɪpˌaʊt/
## Footnote
* The end of the Permian saw the worst mass extinction in Earth's history. The reason behind it is not totally understood; it could have been caused by volcanic eruptions blocking out the Sun, by earthquakes or even by an asteroid crashing into Earth. Whatever the cause, it **wiped out** 90 percent of all species on the planet.
53
“During this geological period, evidence shows that the first simple plant‑like organisms had begun to appear on land.”
| (approx. 485-444 Ma)
**Ordovician Period**
## Footnote
“Ordovices = old Welsh tribe → their rocks define the period.”The name was chosen by the British geologist Charles Lyell in the early 19th century.
54
# noun
a type of animal (such as a kangaroo or an opossum) that carries its babies in a pocket of skin on the mother's stomach (pouch)
| کیسهداران
**marsupial**
| /mɑɚˈsuːpijəl/
## Footnote
* The Virginia opossum (Didelphis virginiana) is the only **marsupial** native to North America.
From Greek marsýpion (μαρσύπιον) = little bag, small pouch
55
# adj
very afraid; feeling fear
**fearful**
| /ˈfiɚfəl/
[more fearful; most fearful]
## Footnote
* a **fearful** glance
* She was **fearful** for their safety. [=she was afraid that they were not safe]
* He was **fearful** of being left behind.
56
# adj
very angry
| =Enraged
=Livid
**furious**
[more furious; most furious]
| /ˈfjʊrijəs/
## Footnote
* a **furious** argument
* I was **furious** with/at them for printing the story.
57
# adj
very bad or unpleasant
**awful**
| /ˈɑːfəl/
[more awful; most awful]
## Footnote
* The music was **awful**.
* They heard the most **awful** sounds.
* **Awful** things began to happen.
58
# adj
very beautiful or attractive
**gorgeous**
| /ˈgoɚʤəs/
## Footnote
* Your baby is absolutely **gorgeous**!
* a **gorgeous** young man/woman
* a **gorgeous** red dress
59
# adj
very big, large or heavy
**massive**
| /ˈmæsɪv/
## Footnote
* “The museum unveiled a **massive** T‑rex fossil that towered over the visitors.”
* **massive** furniture
* the dog's **massive** head/jaw
* stars more **massive** than the sun
60
# adj
very bright or shining
**luminous**
| /ˈluːmənəs/
## Footnote
* **luminous** stars/galaxies
* I saw the cat's **luminous** eyes in my car's headlights.
* a watch with a **luminous** dial
as a verb: **illuminate**: Candles illuminate [=light] the room.
61
# adj
very busy; overwhelmed with work
**swamped**
| / swɒmpt /
## Footnote
* "I can't go out tonight, I'm **swamped** with homework".
* "The store was **swamped** with shoppers during the holiday sale".
* "I'm so **swamped** with classes this week, I barely have time to breathe"
62
# adj
very calm and peaceful
**serene**
| /səˈriːn/
## Footnote
* a **serene** face
* **serene** music/skies
63
# adj
very clean
**spotless**
| /ˈspɑːtləs/
## Footnote
* a **spotless** kitchen
* She keeps her room **spotless**.
64
# adj
very colorful
**vibrant**
| /ˈvaɪbrənt/
## Footnote
* We went to the village fair and the dresses people were wearing were **vibrant** and very accomodating
65
# adj
very competetive
**cutthroat**
| /ˈkʌtˌθroʊt/
## Footnote
* **cutthroat** [=ruthless] competition
* It's a **cutthroat** business we're in.
66
# adj
very complete
**comprehensive**
| /ˌkɑːmprɪˈhɛnsɪv/
## Footnote
* a **comprehensive** list
* **comprehensive** insurance [=insurance that covers all kinds of risks]
* a **comprehensive** [=thorough] course of study
67
# adj
very confused
**perplexed**
| /pɚˈplɛkst/
## Footnote
* He gave her a **perplexed** look.
* The explanation left me thoroughly **perplexed**.
68
# adj
very creative
**innovative**
| /ˈɪnəˌveɪtɪv/
## Footnote
* an **innovative** approach/solution to the problem
* an **innovative** design
69
# v
to move back, withdraw, or become smaller over time.
**recede**
| /rɪˈsiːd/
## Footnote
* Scientists warn that many glaciers are **receding** faster than expected due to rising temperatures.
* After the storm, the floodwater **receded** and people could return to their homes.
* The pain **receded** after a few minutes, but the memory stayed with her.
70
# adj
very crowded; full of people moving about in a busy way
**bustling**
| /ˈbʌslɪŋ/
## Footnote
* a **bustling** town/pier/city
71
# adj
very cute; very appealing or attractive : very lovable
**adorable**
| /əˈdorəbəl/
## Footnote
* She is an **adorable** [=delightful] child.
* They live in an **adorable** little cottage.
72
# adj
very deep; having or showing great knowledge or understanding
**profound**
| /prəˈfaʊnd/
## Footnote
* “Bertrand Russell was a **profound** thinker.”
* His knowledge of history is **profound**.
* Her books offer **profound** insights into the true nature of courage.
73
# adj
very detailed; very careful about doing something in an extremely accurate and exact way
**meticulous**
| /məˈtɪkjələs/
## Footnote
* “The monks worked for days on the sand mandala, placing each grain with **meticulous** care.”
* He described the scene in **meticulous** detail.
* She did **meticulous** work.
* He keeps **meticulous** records.
74
# adj
very diffucult
**arduous**
| /ˈɑɚʤəwəs/
## Footnote
* He went through a long and **arduous** training program.
* **arduous** efforts
* years of **arduous** study
75
# adj
very easy
**effortless**
| /ˈɛfɚtləs/
## Footnote
* His writing is known for its seemingly **effortless** style.
* The skier made a series of **effortless** turns.
76
# adj
very exciting
**exhilarating**
| /ɪɡˈzɪləreɪtɪŋ/
## Footnote
* My first parachute jump was an **exhilarating** experience.
* Young people often find danger rather **exhilarating**.
77
# adj
very friendly and pleasant
**amiable**
| /ˈeɪmijəbəl/
## Footnote
* Everyone knew him as an **amiable** fellow.
* Fabio had an **amiable** conversation with her friend.
78
# adj
very funny
**hilarious**
| /hɪˈlerijəs/
## Footnote
* Some people don't like his comedy, but I think he's **hilarious**.
* She gave us a **hilarious** account of her first days as a teacher.
* a **hilarious** comedy
79
# adj
very glad and happy
**overjoyed**
| /ˌoʊvɚˈʤoɪd/
## Footnote
* She was **overjoyed** to see her sister again.
* They weren't **overjoyed** at the idea of working together.
* I'm **overjoyed** that you can come to my party.
80
# adj
very great; extremely good
**terrific**
| /təˈrɪfɪk/
## Footnote
* He makes **terrific** chili.
* She's given me some **terrific** ideas.
* Your test scores were **terrific**.
81
# adj
very long
**extensive**
| /ɪkˈstɛnsɪv/
## Footnote
* “an **extensive** (comprehensive) reading list of biology books”
* He's had **extensive** [=considerable] training in this area.
* The storm caused **extensive** damage.
82
# adj
very hurt
**battered**
| /ˈbætɚd/
## Footnote
* The police took pictures of the victim's **battered** body.
* the bruised and **battered** face of a boxer
* a **battered** wife/woman
* **battered** children
83
# adj
very hungry
**starving**
| /ˈstärviNG/
## Footnote
* "the world's **starving** children"
84
# adj
very high; flying or rising high in the air.
**soaring**
| /ˈsôriNG/
## Footnote
* "the colored trails of **soaring** rockets"
* "the **soaring** crime rate"
85
# adj
very hard to find
**rare**
| /ˈreɚ/
## Footnote
* a collection of **rare** books
* a list of **rare** and endangered species
* a **rare** [=scarce] gem
86
# adj
very important
**crucial**
| /ˈkruːʃəl/
## Footnote
* Vitamins are **crucial** for maintaining good health.
* Eggs are a **crucial** [=essential] ingredient in this recipe.
* a **crucial** distinction/difference
87
# adj
very happy or excited : feeling or showing ecstasy
**ecstatic**
| /ɛkˈstætɪk/
## Footnote
* He was **ecstatic** when he heard that he was going to be a father.
* **ecstatic** applause
⚡ **ecstatic vs overjoyed:**
* **ecstatic** = extremely happy + almost euphoric, bursting with emotion.
* **overjoyed** = very, very happy because of a specific good event.
88
# adj
very interesting
**captivating**
| /ˈkæptəˌveɪtɪŋ/
## Footnote
* a **captivating** [=fascinating] story
* a **captivating** smile
89
# adj
very loud
**thunderous**
| /ˈθʌndərəs/
## Footnote
* The audience responded with **thunderous** applause.
90
# adj
very necessary
**essential**
| /ɪˈsɛnʃəl/
## Footnote
* As a fighter pilot, he knows that good vision is **essential**.
* Reservations are **essential** [=necessary, needed] if you plan to eat there on a Saturday.
**essential vs crucial:**
🟦 **essential** = absolutely needed for something to exist or function
🟧 **crucial** = extremely important because it decides the outcome
**essential** = necessary
**crucial** = decisive
91
# adj
very old
**ancient**
| /ˈeɪnʃənt/
## Footnote
* The people in the village still observe the **ancient** customs/traditions of their ancestors.
* a grove of **ancient** oak trees
92
# noun
a long, narrow hole that is dug in the ground
| = ditch
گودال
**trench**
| /ˈtrɛntʃ/
## Footnote
* The Mariana **Trench** in the western Pacific Ocean is the deepest oceanic trench on Earth. That’s nearly 11 km straight down — if Mount Everest were placed inside it, it would still be covered by more than a mile of water.
🕳️ **trench vs. ditch**:
* **ditch** = small, shallow channel (often beside roads).
simple, narrow, not very deep
* **trench** = long, deep, narrow cut in the ground (natural or man‑made). bigger, deeper, more serious
93
1. to stop (a fire) from burning : to put out (a fire)
2. to cause you to stop feeling thirsty
| = extinguish
**quench**
| /ˈkwɛntʃ/
## Footnote
1. Firefighters **quenched** [=extinguished] the flames.
2. A glass of water will **quench** your thirst.
94
# adj
existing from the beginning of time : very ancient
**primordial**
| /prɪˈmoɚdijəl/
## Footnote
* "All the organic beings which have ever lived on this Earth have desended from some one **primordial** form into which life was first breathed." pg 484, first edition. [The Origion Of Species](https://darwin-online.org.uk/Variorum/1859/1859-484-c-1860.html?utm_source=chatgpt.com).
95
# adj
very perfect
**flawless**
| /ˈflɔːləs/
## Footnote
* an attractive woman with **flawless** skin
* a **flawless** [=perfect] performance
96
# adjective
very noisy
**deafening**
| /ˈdɛfənɪŋ/
## Footnote
* The sign fell with a **deafening** [=earsplitting] crash.
* the **deafening** roar of the planes
* The music was **deafening**.
97
# adj
very powerful (that you cannot resist it)
**compelling**
| /kəmˈpɛlɪŋ/
## Footnote
* I would need a very **compelling** reason to leave my job.
* She had a **compelling** need to share what she had heard.
* a **compelling** desire/need
98
# adj
very quick
**rapid**
| /ˈræpəd/
## Footnote
* a **rapid** [=quick] change in temperature
* There's been **rapid** growth in the number of new businesses in the town.
* Scientists are concerned about the **rapid** disappearance of the island's coral reefs.
99
# adj
very rich
**wealthy**
| /ˈwɛlθi/
## Footnote
* He is a **wealthy** entrepreneur.
* the **wealthiest** nations in the world
* They live in a **wealthy** [=well-to-do] suburb.
100
# adj
widely recognized, instantly identifiable, and strongly symbolic.
**iconic**
| /ˈaɪˌkɑːn/
## Footnote
* The Triceratops is an **iconic** species
101
# Paleontology & History
This iconic herbivorous dinosaur lived during the Late Cretaceous period. It is easily recognized by its large bony frill and three prominent facial horns. It is often depicted in popular culture as the primary rival of the Tyrannosaurus rex.
**Triceratops**
plural and singular are same: Triceratops
| /traɪˈsɛrətɒps/
## Footnote
* The discovery of the **Triceratops** is a classic case of "mistaken identity" in science.
from Greek,
**tri**‑ τρεῖς “three"
**keras** / keratos κέρας (gen. κέρατος) “horn”
**ōps** ὤψ “face, eye”
meaning "three-horned face."
تریسراتوپس یا سهشاخچهره
102
# adj
very scary, disturbing or frightening ( usually because it is connected with something violent or cruel)
**chilling**
| /ˈtʃɪlɪŋ/
## Footnote
* a **chilling** tale
103
# adj
very slow
**sluggish**
| /ˈslʌgɪʃ/
## Footnote
* a **sluggish** lizard/stream
* The game picked up after a **sluggish** start.
104
# adj
very smart
**intelligent**
| /ɪnˈtɛləʤənt/
## Footnote
* highly/very **intelligent** [=smart] people
* She asked some **intelligent** questions.
* He's a hard worker but he's not very **intelligent**.
* an **intelligent** decision
105
# adj
very sorry; feeling or showing regret : expressing an apology
**apologetic**
| /əˌpɑːləˈʤɛtɪk/
## Footnote
* We received an **apologetic** letter and a full refund from the company.
* an **apologetic** smile
* They were **apologetic** about the mistake.
* She seemed almost **apologetic** about buying a new car.
106
# adj
very strong; having a strong and confident quality
**forceful**
| /ˈfoɚsfəl/
## Footnote
* He has a very **forceful** personality.
* She's a confident and **forceful** leader.
107
# adj
very talented; having great natural ability
**gifted**
| /ˈgɪftəd/
## Footnote
* He's an extremely **gifted** student/athlete.
* a school for **gifted** children
108
# adj
very tasty
**delicious**
| /dɪˈlɪʃəs/
## Footnote
* Dinner was **delicious**.
* This is the most **delicious** ice cream I have ever eaten.
109
# adj
very tiny
**miniscule**
| /ˈmɪnəˌskjuːl/
## Footnote
* a **minuscule** [=tiny] house/apartment/garden
110
# adj
very upset
**distraught**
| /dɪˈstrɑːt/
## Footnote
* **Distraught** relatives are waiting for news of the missing children.
* She was **distraught** over the death of her partner.
111
# noun
a very large dangerous fire that is out of control
**inferno**
| /ɪnˈfɚnoʊ/
## Footnote
* By the time help arrived, the fire had grown to a raging **inferno**.
112
# Paleontology & History
The first vertebrates to fly took to the skies about 215 million years ago. These creatures were neither birds nor bats. They belonged to a group of flying reptiles called ..... .
**pterosaur**
| /ˈtɛr.ə.sɔr/
## Footnote
* **[Pterosaurs](https://www.britannica.com/animal/pterosaur)** ranged from the size of a sparrow to a small airplane, and are still the largest animals that ever flew. Along with dinosaurs and many other species, pterosaurs went extinct about 65 million years ago.
comes from Greek: pteron = wing / sauros = lizard: “winged lizard”
113
# adj
able to move quickly, easily, and lightly
**nimble**
| /ˈnɪmbəl/
## Footnote
* a **nimble** [=agile] dancer
* the pianist's **nimble** fingers
114
# v
to be in a hidden place
**lurk**
| /ˈlɚk/
## Footnote
* Danger **lurks** everywhere.
* The cat was **lurking** [=hiding] behind the sofa.
115
# idiom
to change a situation so that you are now in a stronger position than the person who used to be in a stronger position than you
**turn the tables** (on somebody)
## Footnote
* She **turned the tables on** her rival with allegations of corruption.
116
large meat-eating dinosaur from Africa. Scientists think it may have lived a semi-aquatic lifestyle.
| 'spine lizard'
**Spinosaurus**
| /ˌspaɪnəˈsɔːrəs/
## Footnote
Diet:
carnivorous
Teeth:
smooth and cone-shaped
Food:
fish and maybe other dinosaurs
When it lived:
Late Cretaceous, 99–94 million years ago
Found in:Egypt,Morocco
Type of dinosaur:
large theropod
Length:
14.0m
Weight:
7400kg
117
# adjective formal
related but not in a direct or close way
**collateral**
| /kəˈlætərəl/
## Footnote
* **collateral** damage: forms of damage including deaths and injuries that are a result of the fighting in a war but happen to people who are not in the military
* **collateral** relatives
* the **collateral** effects of the government's policies
118
# noun
an activity that you enjoy doing during your free time
**pastimes**
| /ˈpɑːsˌtaɪm/
## Footnote
* “One of my favourite **pastimes** is watching YouTube videos to relax and learn new things.”
119
# adj
very weak
#omnipotent
| #Forceful
**feeble**
more feeble; most feeble
| /ˈfiːbəl/
## Footnote
* If God wishes to prevent evil and is not able to, then God is **feeble**.
120
# Philosophy of Religion
Who was the first philosopher to identify the Logical Problem of Evil?
**Epicurus**
(341–270 BCE)
## Footnote
Epicurus framed the problem as a logical conflict between four possibilities regarding God's power and will:
1. If God is willing to prevent evil but not able, he is not all-powerful (impotent).
2. If he is able but not willing, he is not all-good (malevolent).
3. If he is neither able nor willing, why call him God at all?
4.
4. If he is both able and willing, why does evil exist?
121
# [singular] informal
something that is unpleasant or disappointing
**bummer**
| /ˈbʌmɚ/
## Footnote
* That was a real **bummer** of a movie.
* You can't go? What a **bummer**!
122
# adjective
strange and frightening
**spooky**
spookier; spookiest
[also more spooky; most spooky]
| /ˈspuːki/
## Footnote
* a **spooky** movie
* The music was pretty **spooky**.
* a **spooky** old house
**scary vs creepy vs spooky**:
* **scary** = causes fear
* **creepy** = fear + discomfort
* **spooky** = fear + ghostly vibe
123
# noun / adj
1. a very stupid person : an idiot or fool (as a noun)
2. (as an adjective)
**imbecile**
| /ˈɪmbəˌsiːl/
## Footnote
1. He drank too much and started acting like a complete **imbecile**.
2. (or **imbecilic**): **imbecilic** behavior
124
# idiom infml
experiencing a period of success or good luck
**on a roll**
## Footnote
* They’ve won nine games in a row, so they’re obviously **on a roll**.
* After answering several questions correctly: “Wow, you’re **on a roll** today.”
* When someone keeps winning in a game: “Don’t stop now—you’re **on a roll**.”
125
# phrasal verb
to make him stronger, more resilient, or better able to handle difficulty
**toughen sb up**
| /ˈtʌf·ən/
## Footnote
* The hard work certainly **toughened** those boys **up**.
* “Life in a new country can **toughen** you **up** fast.”
126
# phrasal verb
feeling sad, disappointed, or discouraged, usually because something didn’t go the way you hoped.
**bummed out**
## Footnote
* “He was really **bummed out** after failing the test.”
* “I’m **bummed out** that the event got cancelled.”
* “She seemed **bummed out** all day.”
127
# noun
a feeling of great pain or sadness
**woe**
| /ˈwoʊ/
## Footnote
* She listened to his tale of **woe**. [=his sad story]
* “Wednesday’s Child Is Full of **Woe**” is the official title of Episode 1, Season 1 of Wednesday on Netflix.
128
# idiom slang informal + impolite
to pass liquid from the body : urinate
**take a leak**
| British: have a leak
## Footnote
* “During the long road trip, Rebecca asked the driver to stop because she needed to **take a leak**.”
129
# noun mythology
in Inca religion, the sun god
**inti**
| /EEN-tee/
## Footnote
* **Inti** was believed to be the ancestor of the Incas. Inti was at the head of the state cult, and his worship was imposed throughout the Inca empire.
130
# verb
1- to cause (something) to stop burning
2- to cause the end or death of (something)
| =quench
**extinguish**
| /ɪkˈstɪŋgwɪʃ/
## Footnote
* 1. The fire department was called in to **extinguish** the blaze.
He **extinguished** his cigarette in the ashtray.
* 2. They ruthlessly **extinguished** all resistance.
News of the conflict **extinguished** our hopes for a peaceful resolution.
131
# verb
to talk loudly and in a way that shows anger : to complain in a way that is unreasonable
**rant**
| /ˈrænt/
## Footnote
* Do you have a second so I can **rant**?
132
The scientific name for the **breathing system**
**Respiratory System**
133
# verb
1. to end an organization or a system gradually in an organized way
2. to take apart a machine or structure so that it is in separate pieces
**dismantle**
| /dɪsˈmæntl̟/
## Footnote
1. “The snake’s poison rapidly **dismantles** the victim’s nervous system, leaving almost no time for a defensive response.”
2. I had to **dismantle** the engine in order to repair it.
134
# noun
a woman who agrees to become pregnant in order to give the baby to someone who cannot have children
**surrogate mother**
135
to increase something, esp. the sound of a radio, television, or stereo:
crank up something
or
crank something up
## Footnote
* “**Crank it up**, I love this song.”
* **crank up** the volume/pressure
136
# verb
to cut off the head of (a person or animal)
**decapitate**
| /dɪˈkæpəˌteɪt/
## Footnote
* Praying Mantises mate once and then they **decapitate** the partner.
This act is often seen in nature as a survival strategy, where the female may gain nutritional benefits from the male's body, enhancing her reproductive success.
Mnemonic: **D**on't **C**ut **A**ny **P**arts -> Decapitate.
137
# verb medical
to cause a break or tear in (a part of the body);
to damage or destroy (a relationship, situation, etc.)
**rupture**
| /ˈrʌptʃɚ/
## Footnote
* A single drop of venom from an eyelash viper could kill a human. It **ruptures** blood vessels and paralyses muscles.
This term is often used in medical contexts to describe injuries, such as those caused by accidents or sports. Additionally, it can refer to the breakdown of social connections, highlighting the fragility of relationships.
138
# noun
a type of poisonous snake
**viper**
| /ˈvaɪpɚ/
## Footnote
This species is known for its distinctive triangular head and can be found in various habitats, including forests and grasslands. Some types possess potent venom that can be lethal to their prey.
Mnemonic: Think 'Viper' -> 'Vicious and Poisonous'.
139
# phrasal verb
accept sth bad
**put up with**
## Footnote
* I don't want to **put up with** this noise.
140
a Neoplatonist philosopher, astronomer, and mathematician who lived in Alexandria, at that time in the province of Egypt and a major city of the Eastern Roman Empire.
**Hypatia**
| Born c. 350–370 AD
Died March 415 AD (aged 45–65)
## Footnote
* **Hypatia** was a prominent figure in ancient Alexandria, known for her contributions to mathematics and philosophy, and is often regarded as one of the first female mathematicians.
* **Hypatia** was brutally murdered by a mob of Christian zealots in 415 AD.
01 Learn Forever
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