Aggresion

Question 1

Define proactive aggression

Answer 1

A planned method of getting what you want
E.g planning a murder, someone may go out and buy equipment and plan the time the murder will occur.

Question 2

Define Reactive aggression

Answer 2

Impulsive behaviour that is often accompanied with physiological arousal.

E.g starting a fight in a pub because someone split a drink on you . It hasn’t been planned

Question 3

Describe the limbic system

Answer 3

Limbic system connects the brain stem to the cortex. It is made up of the hypothalamus, amygdala and parts of the hippocampus.

Question 4

What is one function of the limbic system

Answer 4

To control a range of emotional behaviours including aggression

Question 5

What is the most important structure in the limbic system associated with aggression

Answer 5

Amygdala

Question 6

What is the amygdala responsible for

Answer 6

Quickly evaluating the emotional importance of sensory information and promoting an appropriate response including aggression.

Question 7

What happens if the amygdala malfunctions in a way due to tumour or damage

Answer 7

Aggressive behaviour may be more likely.

Question 8

Evaluation for limbic system in Neural Mechanisms in Aggression

Answer 8

Pardini eat al found that p’s who had smaller amygdalas than normal showed higher levels of aggression and violence. This supports the idea that if the amygdala isn’t working properly then it leads to aggression.

Kluver found that destroying the amygdala in aggressive monkeys resulted in less aggressive behaviour, supporting the role of amygdala in aggression. However this tells us little about human aggression.

Looking at the amygdala alone at the cause of aggression is biologically reductionist it is more likely to work together with the other structures in the limbic system e.g OFC

Question 9

Describe Serotonin in neural mechanisms of aggression

Answer 9

it is a neurotransmitter involved in the communication of impulses between neurons. It has a widespread inhibitory effect on the brain. Normal levels of serotonin are associated with greater behavioural control as it typically inhibits the firing of the amygdala. Lower levels of serotonin are associated with high levels of aggression.

Question 10

Evaluation of Serotonin of Neural Mechanisms in Aggression

Answer 10

Raleigh gave different diets to monkeys. The monkeys he fed with high serotonin levels showed decrease in aggression. Those monkeys who didn’t have enough serotonin had increased aggressive behaviour.

However Dukes et al found serotonin accounts for 1% variance in aggression

Question 11

Describe the hormonal mechanism in aggression- the role of testosterone

Answer 11

Testosterone is a male sex hormone secreted by the testes in males and to a lesser degree, the ovaries in females.
Typically the higher the level of testosterone the higher the level of aggression.
Highest level of testosterone is produced in males aged 15-25, the group most likely to commit violent crimes.

Question 12

Evaluation of hormonal mechanism in aggression-the role of testosterone

Answer 12

Wagner castrated male mice and found aggression was reduced. He later injected the mice with testosterone which re-established their aggression.

Dabbs measured testosterone in the saliva of 692 adult male prisoners and found higher levels in violent offenders than in non violent offenders, suggesting that aggression is increased when testosterone is high.

However Clarre’s dual hormone hypothesis claims that high levels of testosterone lead to aggressive behaviour only when levels of cortisol are low. When cortisol is high testosterone influence on aggression is blocked. This suggests that the link between testosterone and aggression is more complex than some studies have suggested.

Question 13

How is aggression passed on in genetics

Answer 13

Through genetic transmission, aggression can be passed from one generation to the next.

Question 14

In reality what do genes actually do in aggression

Answer 14

Genes do not directly cause aggression but influence elements of our biology that contribute to it.

Question 15

Where do genes contribute elements necessary for aggression to

Answer 15

The muscle and bone development

Question 16

Describe MAOA

Answer 16

Produces chemicals which breaks down the neurotransmitters serotonin, noradrenaline and dopamine removing excess amounts and allowing neurons to communicate more effectively.

The link between mood and these neurochemicals is accepted and the build up may cause people to respond aggressively to stressful situations.

Question 17

What happens if there is a dysfunction in the MAOA gene

Answer 17

The enzyme doesn’t regulate the levels of serotonin properly resulting in aggressive behaviour.

Question 18

What are the different forms of the MAOA gene

Answer 18

A low (l) activity version
A high (H) activity version

Research suggests that it is the MAOA-(L) gene which creates a person to be violent

Question 19

Evaluation of genetic factors in aggression including MAOA gene

Answer 19

Supporting evidence comes from Brunner who investigated a Dutch family whose male members had been particularly aggressive over many generations. Males in this family had a mutated version of the MAOA gene.

McDermott showed in a controlled experimental condition how those with the MAOA-L gene were more likely to force someone to eat hot chili sauce than someone with MAOA-H gene, supporting the role of the MAOA-L gene in aggression.

Capsi studied 500 male children and looked at their anti social behaviour when they grew up. He found the support for the role of the MAO-L variant in aggression, but only If they had been punished as mistreated as children. This suggests a person has the MAOA gene and the right environmental factors are present. Suggesting an interactionist approach when explaining aggression.

Genetic explanations are also reductionist as they explain aggression by looking at genetic factors only. Although this makes the study of aggression simpler at the same time it fails to account for other complex factors that may link to aggression. Ignores Holism

Question 20

Define innate releasing mechanisms

Answer 20

A built in structure in the brain that when triggered by a sign stimuli (environmental trigger) causes a series of fixed action pattern

Question 21

Define sign stimulus

Answer 21

An environmental trigger or threat

Question 22

Define fixed action patterns

Answer 22

A sequence of stereotyped pre programmed behaviours triggered by an innate releasing mechanism

Question 23

Give examples of fixed action patterns

Answer 23

Exposing teeth and making yourself look bigger

Which are also known as ritualistic signals

Question 24

Why are fixed action patterns used

Answer 24

To deter another male from entering an animals territory and potentially taking away access to females which would prevent genes being passed on.

Question 25

What did Lorenz believe about the ritualistic signals

Answer 25

Can only occur for a certain amount of time as fixed action patterns only have a certain amount of action specific energy dedicated to them.

Question 26

Evaluation of Ethological explanation of aggression

Answer 26

Tinbergen’s reserach with sticklebacks demonstrated the idea of an innate releasing mechanism, fixed action pattern and sign stimuli. During mating season, when male stickle backs saw an object that is red they will attack it even if it’s fish shaped or not. Supporting the idea that animals are innately programmed to respond aggressively to certain environmental conditions. Genetic explanations of human aggression support the idea that aggression is innate, giving further support to ethological explanation. Research into the MAOA gene suggests it is linked to aggression. This evidence gives the ethological approach more credibility and validity. A major problem of the ethological theory is that killing members of own species is not as rare as Lorenz suggested. For example research found male chimpanzee worked together to slaughter another group of male chimpanzee appeasement displays were shown, which suggests that aggression is not always adaptive, contradicting ethological explanation. This contradictory evidence could be due to the fact the explanation is based on lower order species such as birds and does not relate to higher order species like chimpanzee, suggesting the explanation may be invalid

Question 27

Why does the evolutionary explanation of human aggression suggest that present day behaviour came about

Answer 27

Because they were adaptive for our remote human ancestors because they gave them the advantage of surviving, reproducing and passing on their genes These behaviours were controlled by genes, so the genes are passed on from generation to generation to the present day.

Question 28

Define sexual competition

Answer 28

When ancestral males seeking access to females would have had to compare with other males. One way of eliminating competition would have been through aggression. More aggressive individuals would be more successful in gaining mates and therefore more successful in passing on the genes

Question 29

Define sexual jealousy

Answer 29

Fear created by threats to their status as an exclusive sexual partner It is males feared losing their mate to another male

Question 30

What Is fear of cuckoldry

Answer 30

Male fear of investing parental resources in offspring which is genetically not theirs

Question 31

Evaluation of evolutionary explanation

Answer 31

Puts argues that the fact males have 75% more muscle mass then females is evidence for the fact that men have evolved as result of physically fighting each other. Males with the most muscle would have been able to fight off competition easier, making it more likely to pass on their genes, thus supporting the sexual competition element of the theory. Daly and Wilson claim that men have evolved different strategies to deter their partners from, the acts of infidelity. These range from direct guarding, spying, violence etc, all fuels by male sexual jealousy. They found sexual jealousy was the underlying factor in 58 out of 214 murder cases A criticism of the evolutionary explanation is the deterministic view. This would be the view that sexual jealousy is determined by inherited genetic factors over which we have no control. Other factors such as culture we live and childhood experiences may be involved in sexual jealously. The lack of free will clashes with the court of laws here offenders are punished for their actions.

Question 32

What did Dollard suggest about frustration aggression

Answer 32

All aggression was a result of frustration and the greater the frustration the greater the aggressive response. Frustration occurs when we are prevented from doing something we really want. He suggested acting aggressively allows a person to release their emotions providing a cathartic effect and reduction in aggression. Dollard claims that aggression is usually taken out on the source of frustration but not always possible so sometimes a person may displace their aggression onto a scapegoat. This explains why we may take our aggression out on another source that hasn’t caused us frustration.

Question 33

Evaluation of frustration aggression hypothesis

Answer 33

There are numerous laboratory studies that support the FAH. For example research found when participants were deliberately frustrated by a confederate while trying to complete a jigsaw puzzle, they gave stronger shocks to him when he failed a task compared to a non frustrated group. It also has real world applications. Priks found that football supporters were more likely to throw a missiles onto the pitch and fight with opposition supporters when they were frustrated by a poor performance from their team. This suggests that fans become more aggressive when expectations of good performance were frustrated which supports the FAH A major weakness of the FAH is that the concept of catharsis has little research support. The frustration aggression hypothesis predicts aggression leads to catharsis and a reduction in aggression. However research found participants who repeatedly hit a punch bag become more angry and aggressive. In fact doing nothing was more effective at reducing aggression. Those goes against FAH

Question 34

Evaluation of SLT as an explanation of aggression

Answer 34

Bandura bobo doll studies provide empirical support for the SLT explanation of aggression as they suggest that children can learn aggression through observation and imitation of role models. However, a bobo doll does not hit back unlike humans in real life, suggesting the bobo doll studies may not tell us much about imitation of aggression in every day life. SLT can also explain cultural differences in aggression. For example aggression is very rare in a tribe in kalhari desert. Aggression is not valued amongst this tribe, children are not physically punished and aggressive postures are avoided. This shows if a culture does not expose their children to aggressive role models then they won’t be aggressive. This suggests the SLT may be more valid theory than some others.

Question 35

What does SLT suggest about aggression

Answer 35

Suggests that we learn aggression by observing others in a social context. Children watch parents, powerful models etc acting aggressively and then may imitate this. Using meditational process: if we paid (attention) to the aggressive behaviour e.g if we saw a friend punch another person and we remember what they did and how (retention). If we feel capable of reproducing that aggressive behaviour (reproduction) and we are motivated to imitate it, we are more likely to imitate the behaviour. Bandura also claimed that if we are more likely to imitate aggression if it is someone who we identify with and if we see them rewarded for the aggression we would imitate (vicarious reinforcement). In contrast if the models behaviour is punished then the observer will not imitate it (vicarious punishment)

Question 36

Write the AO1 for De-Individuation

Answer 36

This occurs when a person is in a crowd or large group. Zimbardo believed that being in a large group gives people a ‘cloak of anonymity’ that diminishes any personal consequences for their actions. Factors that contribute to deindividuation include anonymity and altered consciousness due to drugs or alcohol. Zimbadri believed that being in parts of a crowd and therefore being anonymous can cause a loss of individuality because there is less of a concern about negative evaluation from others and consequently a reduction of guilt.

Question 37

Evaluation of de individuation

Answer 37

Zimbardos prison simulation study offers support for deindividuation theory as the prison guards who were deindividuation acted aggressively towards the prisoners. However a criticism of this study was the fact that it was conducted in an artificial setting and so may not have high ecological validity. This suggests it may not reflect de individuated behaviour in real life. Research showed when participants dressed in a mask gave higher shocks than a control group but participants dressed as nurses gave a lower shock. This suggests de individuation is a possible cause of aggression, but that other factors like social role we are playing may affect how aggressive we become. However some research has found de individuation is more likely to be a cause of aggression in males rather than females suggesting this theory may be gender biased.

Question 38

AO1 for Importation Model dispositional explanation

Answer 38

Irwin and Cressey suggested that prisoners bring their own beliefs, values, norms, characteristics and violent pasts sign them into the prison as a way of helping them cope with their environment. Aggression is a way for prisoners to establish power, status influence and access to resources. Prisoners are not ‘blank slates’ when they enter the prison and therefore many of the norms they developed on the outside are ‘imported’ into the prison. These previous behaviours may be from gang membership, anger and low self control.

Question 39

AO3 for importation model dispositional explanation

Answer 39

Evidence to support this comes from Harer and Steffensmeirer who analysed data from 58 US prisons, including importation variables such as criminal history. They also looked at situational variables such as staff to prisoners level. They found that only the importation variables were significant predictors of prison violence. However the importation models claims about pre prison gang membership has been questioned. Research found prisoners with prior street gang involvement were no more likely than others to behave aggressively in prison. This could however be explained by the fact that prisons tend to isolate gang members from the other prisoners. Also much of the research into prison aggression focuses on males so it may be Androcentric which leads to beta bias. The importation model may not therefore be valid explanation of institutional aggression in female prisons

Question 40

AO1 for The deprivation model - a situational explanation

Answer 40

It is when the the prisoners aggression is a product of the stressful conditions of the institution itself. Sykes said some pains associated with prison include loss of freedom, loss of heterosexual relationships and over crowding. Aggression is a way to reduce stress and gain some control over their lives. Therefore the deprivation model claims that institutional aggression is a result of the prison environment. Factors that have attracted the most attention are overcrowding and noise.

Question 41

AO3 for the deprivation model a situational explanation

Answer 41

There is significant evidence to support the claim that peer violence is used to relieve the deprivation experienced in prisons. Research looked at 371 state prisons in US and found overcrowding and lack of privacy significantly influenced inmate assaults. This supports the deprivation model. However these situational factors that are linked to aggression do not affect all prisoners in the same way. Research found that crowded prison conditions increased aggression in younger prisoners more than older ones, suggesting there may be an interaction between dispositional factors in the cause of institutional aggressions.

Question 42

AO1 on experimental studies on research into effects of computer games on aggression

Answer 42

Research found students rated themselves higher in hostility scale after playing violent game compared to those who played a slow paced puzzle game. The laboratory have found short term increases in levels of physiological arousal and aggressive behaviour following sessions of violent game play compared to non violent game play.

Question 43

AO3 on experimental studies into the effects of computer games on aggression

Answer 43

The greatest strength of these experimental studies is that they allow us to establish a causal link between playing violent computer games and aggression. As all variables are kept the same we can say confidently that the difference in aggression behaviour is due to the different games played. However studies in labs are artificial and unrealistic. Administering hot chilli sauce has little resemblance to real life aggression and only measures the immediate short term effect.

Question 44

AO1 of correlation studies into the effect of computer games on aggression

Answer 44

Using surveys to identify patterns of video game use and aggressive behaviour. Research studied 227 juvenile offenders that had histories of serious aggressive behaviour. Using structured interviews, they gathered data on serves, measured if aggression and violent video games. They found that the offenders aggression was significantly correlated with how often they played the video games. Concluding video game violence was a significant risk factor for aggression.

Question 45

AO3 of correlation studies into the effect of computer games on aggression

Answer 45

These studies allow researchers to investigate realistic forms of aggression as the participants had actually committed violent acts. This is an improvement on the unrealistic lab studies. However a limitation is the inability to draw cause and effect relationship. Even when we find a positive correlation the outcome could be due to two competing hypotheses. The direction of causality cannot be settled be correlation studies.

Question 46

AO1 of longitudinal studies of into the effect of computer games on aggression

Answer 46

These studies of long term effects of video and computer games are rare. Researchers did research into 430 7-9 year olds and surveyed at two points in the school year. Children who had high exposure to violent video games became more verbally and physically aggressive. This suggests repeated exposure to violent video and computer games increases aggressive behaviour.

Question 47

AO3 of longitudinal studies of into the effect of computer games on aggression

Answer 47

Researchers use this methodology to investigate changes in aggressive behaviour over time. Therefore the nature of media influence in the long term can be studied, However studying change over time leaves longitudinal studies vulnerable into the effect of confounding variables. Many other sources of aggression interact with media influences over a period of time, such a role models.

Question 48

AO1 for desensitisation

Answer 48

Normally when we witness aggression we experience physiological arousal. However, when children habitually view aggression they become habituated to its effects. The violence has an impact negative attitudes towards violence weaken and less empathy felt to victims. This suggests repeated exposure to violence leaves us less sensitive to the state of victims.

Question 49

AOR for desensitisation

Answer 49

Research support comes from research who found that P’s took longer to help someone injured in a fight after 20 mins of playing a violent video game, in comparison to this playing non violent video game. This suggests a reduction in empathy. Media exposure is widespread and yet we are all affected equally. This would imply that there are individual differences in desensitisation experienced, possibly determined by other life experiences.

Question 50

AO1 for disinhibition

Answer 50

According to Berkowitz people are naturally aggressive. We are taught that aggression is wrong, but repeated exposure to aggression in the media leads to new social norms where aggression appears to be socially sanctioned.

Question 51

AO3 of disinhibition

Answer 51

The extent to which someone may become involved in the media they are experiencing will vary. So disinhibition may occur only in people who are fully engaged in playing and are not distracted by external stimuli. Also in households with strong norms against violence, they are unlikely to experience sufficient disinhibition to behave in an aggressive way. However research showed a boxing match with 2 endings: no consequences or death. P’s who did not see the negative consequences were more likely to behave aggressively than those who saw death. This suggests disinhibition may be more likely when no negative consequences are shown.

Question 52

AO1 for cognitive priming

Answer 52

Refers to the activation of existing aggressive thoughts and feelings, and explains why children observe one kind of aggression on television and commit another kind of aggressive act afterwards. Immediately after a violent programme the viewer is primed to respond aggressively because a network of memories involving aggression is retrieved.

Question 53

AO3 for cognitive priming

Answer 53

Research found that individuals who played violent video games had more aggressive thoughts than individuals who played non violent video games. They concluded that a single incident of violent game play had primed aggressive thoughts in these participants. It is hard to establish cause and effect with cognitive priming.