Gender

Question 1

Define Sex

Answer 1

The biological status of being male or female. It is determined at the moment of conception by chromosomes.

Question 2

Define Gender

Answer 2

The psychological, social and cultural status of being masculine or feminine. It includes attitudes, behaviours and social roles associated with being male or female.

Question 3

Define gender role

Answer 3

How society expected us to act based on our gender

Question 4

Define gender identity

Answer 4

Internally how we feel and what we want to be e.g masculine or feminine

Question 5

A01 for sex role stereotypes

Answer 5

These are overgeneralised and oversimplified beliefs that are applied to all members of one sex e.g boys are good at maths, girls have good handwriting etc. They refer to the particular characteristics thought to be typical of males and females in specific cultures. These sex role stereotypes can be problematic because people tend to fulfil the expectations that others have of them, restricting individuals from reaching their potential. Those who do choose counter stereotypical roles may suffer discrimination.

Question 6

A03 of the importance of sex role stereotypes

Answer 6

Research found little evidence to support traditional gender differences suggested by sex role stereotypes. This suggests that sex role stereotypes may be based more on mistaken assumptions than on real differences. When unpublished research was included males and females showed similarities in most traits.

However research found MRI scans showed better connections in women’s brains between left and right hemispheres. Mens brains displayed more intense activity in individual parts. This supports the belief that women are better at multi tasking, showing MRI’s can show biological differences between males and females. This provides evidence that some sex role stereotypes based on real differences.

Further evidence to support the idea of sex role stereotypes comes from research who gave mothers 6 months old babies to play with. The mothers that had the boy would encourage active play given active toys. Mothers that had the girl would give toys like dolls. Suggesting boys and girls are treated very differently from babyhood and that the difference in behaviours may result from these experiences

Question 7

Define androgyny

Answer 7

Means a mix of gender role characteristics. People who show a combination of stereotypically masculine and feminine qualities may be described as androgynous

Question 8

Why is it an advantage of having androgynous characteristics

Answer 8

They have a wider collection of behaviours to use in different situations, so are more likely to respond flexibly and appropriately.

Question 9

The procedure of androgyny measured by Bems Sex Rile Inventory

Answer 9

1) 20 characteristics which consistently rated by 100 American students (50 male and 50 female) as desirable for men e.g independent

2) 20 characteristics rated desirable for women e.g affectionate

3) 20 characteristics rated equally desirable for males and females e.g honest

P’s complete the 60 item questionnaire by saying how true each characteristic is of them, on a 7 point scale. Those scoring high on either masculine or feline characteristics are classed masculine/feminine

Those who score low on both are classed undifferentiated

Those who score high on both are classed androgynous

Question 10

A03 on androgyny and Bems Sex Role Inventory

Answer 10

Evidence supporting Bems idea that androgyny is helpful comes from research who found positive correlation between androgyny and mental health in Indian women. Those with high masculinity scores had less depression than those with only high femininity scores supporting Bems idea that androgyny is psychologically healthy

However it has been argued that males and females who score high on masculine traits are better adjusted because these traits are more highly valued. So perhaps Indian males who scored high on femininity would not show low levels of depression of androgynous women.

This suggests that Bems research may be gender biased in that they minimise gender differences. If androgyny is psychologically healthy for females but not for males then this should be recognised in Bems theory but it is not

Question 11

A01 for the role of chromosomes and hormones

Answer 11

In normal development babies who receive an X chromosome from both their parents will develop as females. Those who receive Y from their father and an X from their mother will develop as males. At about 8 weeks after conception the SRY gene on the Y chromosome cause the release of androgens (male hormones). The most important of these is testosterone leading to development of the testes and penis.

In Females the absence of male hormones leads to development of ovaries and a vagina. The ovaries then produce oestrogen. Oxytocin is related to orgasm and breast feeding. Produced in pituitary gland and promotes bonding in males and females. It makes people less anxious and more sociable

Question 12

AO3 for the role of chromosomes and hormones

Answer 12

Evidence to suggest the role of hormones comes from Van Goozen et al who studied transgender individuals who were injected with hormones of the sex they were transitioning to. Transgender women should decrease in aggression. Transgender men showed increase in aggression. This supports the role of hormones in sex typed behaviour.

Evidence to suggest the role of genes comes from Reimer who was born a boy but circumcision operation went wrong resulting in the loss of his penis. He had surgery and hormone treatment and was raised a girl. Despite early claims of success as an adolescent he reverted to being male. This shows that the role of biology may be stronger than upbringing in determining gender development. Giving support to nature rather than nurture showing support of biological explanation of gender development.

A double blind study gave 43 males either a weekly injection of testosterone or a placebo. No significant differences in aggression or sexual behaviour found after 10 week period between two groups. This suggests additional testosterone does not affect behaviour, but does not challenge the role of testosterone in early development.

Question 13

How do klinefelters syndrome and Turner’s syndrome occur

Answer 13

Randomly during the fusion of egg and sperm cells and are not inherited genetically.

Question 14

A01 for klinefelter’s syndrome

Answer 14

This affects males who have an extra X chromosome. These individuals tend to be taller than average with weaker muscles. They have normal male genitalia but smaller than usual testers. Psychological characteristics are poor verbal skills and difficulty coping with stress.

Question 15

AO1 for Turners Syndrome

Answer 15

Is an abnormality affecting girls, caused by having only one X chromosome rather than two. Physical characteristics are they tend to be shorter than average and they may have a wide neck. Psychological characteristics often include superior reading ability but poor mathematical skills.

Question 16

AO3 for Atypical sex chromosome patterns

Answer 16

1 strength of research into atypical sex chromosome patterns is that it has practical applications. Herlihy found that of 87 males with klinefelters syndrome, those who had been identified and treated from younger age had significant benefits compared to those diagnosed in adulthood. Suggesting increased awareness has useful real world application.

Another strength into atypical sex chromosome patterns is their contribution to the nature/nurture debate in gender development. By comparing people who have these conditions with those with typical chromosomes, it becomes possible to see psychological differences between the two groups. The differences mat be have biological basis and are direct result of abnormal chromosomal structure. This suggests that innate influences have a powerful effect on psychology.

However the relationship between chromosomal abnormalities and difference in behaviours shown by these individuals is not causal. For example, those with Turner’s syndrome look younger than their peers meaning they will be treated as immature by those around them. Consequently, it is wrong to assume that observed psychological differences are due to nature

Question 17

What are the three stages of Kohlberg’s cognitive development theory

Answer 17

Stage 1: Gender identity 2 years old

Stage 2: gender stability 4 years old

Stage 3: gender constancy 6 years old

Question 18

What happens in Stage 1 Gender identity of kohlbergs cognitive development theory

Answer 18

Child develops a basic sense of gender identity. They can label themselves as male or female. Child is not clear whether gender is fixed or can change over time or different situations. They rely on cues like hair and clothing to identify gender.

Question 19

What happens in Stage 2 Gender stability of kohlbergs cognitive development theory

Answer 19

Child realises that their own gender is permanent and irreversible. They know that they will be same sec when they are adults but are still not sure that this will apply to all others. They still rely on physical cues such as hair and clothing to identify gender.

Question 20

What happens in Stage 3 Gender constancy of kohlbergs cognitive development theory

Answer 20

Child realises that gender is constant in different situations even in an individual changes their hair or clothing. Girls fully realise that they will grow up to be women and boys fully realise that they will grow up to be men. They look for models to assist with this learning so pay close attention to same sex models

Question 21

AO1 for Martin and Halveson’s Gender Schema Theory

Answer 21

Agreed with kohlberg that children are active in developing their understanding of gender, but claims that it starts much earlier.

Children become aware of their own gender and establish gender identity at about 2 years old. They then start to look for information around them to learn what is involved in being a girl or boy.

At 4-6 years children have developed a complex concept of their gender (the in group), which tends to be stereotypical and fixed. Children at this age have little understanding of schemas appropriate to opposite sex (the out group) as this is irrelevant to their own identity. Children positively evaluate their group and negative evaluate the out group.

At 8-10 years they also have a sophisticated understanding of the opposite gender and their schemas become more flexible.

Question 22

Define gender schemas

Answer 22

Mental representations about the characteristics of each gender and of gender appropriate behaviour.

Question 23

AO1 for Frueds psychoanalytic theory

Answer 23

He believed babies are born with little psychological gender differentiation, and that this continues until the phallic stage at around 4 when boys experience oedipus complex and girls experience electra complex. He claimed at 4 children desire to be intimate with their parent of opposite sex. For oedipus complex boys they become possessive over their mother and brings rivalry with father. Boy fears father will retaliate by castrating him so to avoid her gives up desire for mother and identifies with father.

For girls during the electra complex they continue to love mothers as primary care givers but also start to develop strong feelings to father. They may want the privileges of society grants that males have. Girls then blame mothers for making them female. This leads to anger and loss of mothers love so they identify with mother to avoid this.

Question 24

AO1 discuss what psychological research has told us about the influence of social learning on gender development

Answer 24

Bandits suggested that all behaviour including gender roles is learned by classical conditioning (learned by association) and operant conditioning (learning by reward, reinforcement and punishment). There is also social learning which involved observation and imitation of role models, particularly the same sec parent. For example if a boy sees his father praised for completing DIY project he will play with a tool set to imitate the behaviour. There is also modelling process where a boy sees his dad praised by mum for changing car oil (attention), he may remember what he saw (retention), he will then want the same praise his dad had (motivation) and there will be an opportunity for him to repeat the behaviour (reproduction).