Issues And Debates

Question 1

Define Universality

Answer 1

The assumption that research can be applied to everyone everywhere, regardless of time and culture

Question 2

Define Bias

Answer 2

A distortion in representation of a group. A view is biased if it leans towards a subjective opinion, rather than objective reality

Question 3

Define Alpha Bias

Answer 3

Research that exaggerates differences between men and women.

Question 4

Give an example of alpha bias

Answer 4

Freud claimed that identification processes are weaker for females than males as girls do not experience castration anxiety. As a results Freud claimed that females are morally inferior to males

Question 5

Define Beta bias

Answer 5

Research that ignores differences between men and women

Question 6

Give an example of beta bias

Answer 6

Asch said level of conformity in men represents conformity in all people

Taylor claimed that females are more likely to respond to stressful situations with tend and befriend

Question 7

Define Androcentrism

Answer 7

Research that is centred on men. ‘Normal’ behaviour is judged according to a male standard, meaning that female behaviour is often judged to be abnormal by comparison

Question 8

Give an example of Androcentrism

Answer 8

Male anger is often seen as a rational response to external pressure.

Female anger is often seen as less “accepted”

Question 9

Evaluation of gender bias

Answer 9

Biological Versus Social Explanation: Maccoby and Jacklin concluded that girls have superior verbal ability whereas boys have better spatial ability. However recent brain scans have found no such sex differences in the brain structure.

Sexism within the research process: male researchers are more likely to have their work published.

Avoiding gender bias research: promoting universality- men and women are far more similar then they are different.
Women should be studied with meaningful real life contexts and genuinely participate in research

Question 10

Define cultural bias

Answer 10

The tendency to judge all people in terms of your own cultural assumptions, ignoring the effects that cultural differences might have on behaviour.

Question 11

Define ethnocentrism

Answer 11

Judging others by the value and standards of one’s own culture.

Question 12

Give an example of ethnocentrism

Answer 12

Ainsworths strange situation as it reflects the norms and values of Western Society.

Question 13

Define Cultural Relativism

Answer 13

The idea that behaviour can only be properly understood in the context of the norms and values of the culture in which it occurs.

Question 14

Evaluation of Cultural bias

Answer 14

In Social Pyschology, Asch and Milgram’s studies were conducted with US participants. Replications in different countries produced different results.

Ekman suggests basic facial expressions for emotions are the same all over the human and animal world. It should be assumed all of Pyschology is culturally relative and there is no universal behaviour.

Question 15

Define free will

Answer 15

You have choice and control.

These are not determined by biological or external factors but that we can reject these factors.

Question 16

Define Determinism

Answer 16

When humans have no choice and no control over our behaviour as it is controlled by internal and external factors.

Question 17

Define Hard Determinism

Answer 17

Pure determinism, everything we do is controlled by other forces. Completely compatible with science. Such causes are completely outside a persons control

Question 18

Define Soft determinism

Answer 18

Half way between free will and determinism. The idea that behaviour are to an extent governed by internal and external forces. Despite this we still have some level of control over free will to control our behaviour

Question 19

Define biological determinism

Answer 19

Behaviour is determined by biological factors outside our control e.g the influence of genes and brain structure etc

Question 20

Define environmental determinism

Answer 20

Behaviour is determined by environmental factors outside of our control e.g punishment for behaviour.

Skinner claimed free will is an illusion. The behaviour explanation of phobias is an example of environmental determinism.

Question 21

Define Pyschic Determinism

Answer 21

Behaviour is determined by unconscious conflicts, repressed in childhood that are outside our control e.g between the id and super ego. The cause of behaviour is is rooted in childhood in childhood.

Question 22

The scientific emphasis on casual explanation

Answer 22

Determinism focuses on the causes of behaviour. A casual explanation is based on the scientific notion that behaviour is determined by internal/external factors - this is a cause and effect relationship.

Question 23

What is the case for determinism

Answer 23

Determinism fits with the goals of science because science is about finding causes and explanations. If we study something but don’t look at what causes it then there is not much point. The idea that human behaviour follows patterns and laws makes Pyschology more like other established sciences.

In addition the value of such research is that the prediction and control of behaviour has led to the development of treatments like psychotherapeutic-drugs.

Question 24

What is the case against determinism

Answer 24

Hard determinism says that people don’t really have free choice, but this clashes with the court of law where offenders are responsible for their actions.

Also, even though determinism seems scientific it cannot be tested. It assumes every behaviour must have a cause even if we haven’t found it yet. Because it cannot be proven then it means determinism may not be as scientific as it first appears.

Question 25

What is the case for free will

Answer 25

Everyday experience suggests we have free will. I’m daily life we choose where we go and what we eat. Also research suggests that people with an internal locus of control tend to be more mentally healthy.

Question 26

What is the case against free will

Answer 26

Libets studies showed that brain activity linked to making a decision happens before we are even aware of choosing. For example when participants decided whether to press a button with their left or right hand, the brain showed activity up to 10 seconds before they reported making the choice.

Question 27

Is biological determinism: hard determinism, soft determinism or Free will

Answer 27

Hard determinism

Question 28

Is behavioural determinism: hard determinism, soft determinism or Free will

Answer 28

Hard determinism

Question 29

Is Social Learning Theory: hard determinism, soft determinism or Free will

Answer 29

Soft determinism

Question 30

Is cognitive determinism: hard determinism, soft determinism or Free will

Answer 30

Soft determinism

Question 31

Is psychic determinism: hard determinism, soft determinism or Free will

Answer 31

Hard determinism

Question 32

Is humanism: hard determinism, soft determinism or Free will

Answer 32

Free will

Question 33

Define Nature

Answer 33

When behavioural is seen to be a product of innate (genetic) factors. Early nativists argued that all human characteristics are innate. Psychological characteristics such as intelligence or personality are determined by genes. This viewpoint associates with biological approach e.g genetic explanation of OCD

Question 34

Define Nurture

Answer 34

Behaviour is seen to be a product of environmental factors. Empiricists argued that the mind is a blank slate at birth which is then shaped by the environment. This viewpoint is associated with the learning approaches e.g behavioural explanation of phobias

Question 35

Define interactionist approach

Answer 35

Behaviour is a product of genetic and environmental influences working together

Question 36

What does the diathesis stress model suggest

Answer 36

People inherit a vulnerability for e.g OCD but this will only be expressed if the person is exposed to environmental triggers

Question 37

Define Epigenetics

Answer 37

A change in our genetic activity due to our environment without changing the genes themselves

Question 38

What is One strength of the nature nurture debate

Answer 38

Adoption studies If adopted children are found to be more similar to their adoptive parents this suggests the environment may be a bigger influence If adopted children are similar to their biological parents genetic factors are presumed to be dominate. A meta analysis of studies into adoption found that genetic factors account for 41% of variance in aggression.

Question 39

What is a support to epigenetics

Answer 39

Susser and Shang reported babies of women who became pregnant during the Dutch Hunger Winter were twice as likely to develop schizophrenia when they grew up, compared to the typical population. This purports the view that the life experiences of previous generation can leave epigentic markers that influence health of their offspring’s.

Question 40

Define Holism

Answer 40

The idea that human behaviour is best understood looking at the whole person rather than breaking it down into smaller parts

Question 41

Define Reductionism

Answer 41

The approach to explaining complex behaviour by breaking it down into simpler more basic components.

Question 42

Levels of explanation in Pyschology

Answer 42

The idea that there are several ways of explaining behaviour. The lowest level - physiological/biological explanations Middle level- psychological explanations Highest level- social and cultural explantions

Question 43

Define biological reductionism

Answer 43

Explaining behaviour solely in terms of biological processes such as genes

Question 44

Define Environmental reductionism

Answer 44

Behaviour is explained in terms of simple stimulus response associations learned through the environment

Question 45

Evaluation the case for Holism

Answer 45

Often there are aspects of social behaviour that only emerge within a group context and cannot be understood at the level of individuals. This shows Holistic level explanations provide a more complete and global understanding of behaviour.

Question 46

Evaluation the case against Holism

Answer 46

Humanistic Pyschology tends to be criticised for its lack empirical evidence. If we accept that there are many factors that contribute to say depression it becomes difficult to establish which is most influential.

Question 47

Evaluation the case for reductionism

Answer 47

In order to create operationalised variables it is needed to break target behaviours down into small parts. This makes it possible to conduct experiments in a way that is meaningful and reliable.

Question 48

Evaluation the case against reductionism

Answer 48

Reductionist approaches have been accused of oversimplifying complex phenomena leading to loss of validity. Explanations that operate at level of the gene do not include an wmalaysis of social context within which behaviour occurs.

Question 49

Define Idiographic approach

Answer 49

Focuses on the individual case as a means of understanding behaviour rather then aiming general laws of behaviour

Question 50

Which methods does idiographic approach associate with

Answer 50

Qualitative data like case studies and interviews

Question 51

Is idiographic subjective or scientific

Answer 51

Subjective

Question 52

Define nomothetic approach

Answer 52

Involves studying a large sample of participants using the findings to generate general laws of behaviour. Make inferences about the wider population Make predictions

Question 53

Which method is nomothetic associated with

Answer 53

Quantitative methods Experiments Controlled observation

Question 54

Is nomothetic subjective or scientific

Answer 54

Scientific

Question 55

Evaluation the case for the idiographic approach

Answer 55

The idiographic approach with its in depth qualitative methods gives a full picture of the individual. This can support the nomothetic approach by adding detail to general laws or even challenging the. For example HM’s case indicated that LTM was not a unitary store.

Question 56

The case against the idiographic approach

Answer 56

Supporters of idiographic approach must recognise the restricted nature of their work. Frueuds Oedipus complex was criticised as it was largely developed from one case study therefore meaning generalisation cannot be made. Also methods such as case studies tend to be least scientific.

Question 57

Evaluation the case for the nomothetic approach

Answer 57

The process involved in nomothetic research tends to be more scientific Testing under standardised conditions Such processes have allowed psychologists to establish norms of ‘typical’ behaviour giving disciple of Pyschology greater scientific credibility

Question 58

Evaluation the case against the nomothetic approach

Answer 58

The nomethic approach focused on general laws has been criticised for ignoring the individual. For example, knowing there is a 1% risk of schizophrenia tells us little about what it is like to live with the disorder.

Question 59

Define ethical implications of research

Answer 59

The way that research impacts on those who take part in research and also on the way the findings are communicated to the public and how the findings are used

Question 60

Define socially sensitive research

Answer 60

Studies in which there are potential social consequences or implications either directly for the participants in the research or the class of individuals represented by the research

Question 61

Sieber and Stanley implications

Answer 61

The wider effects of the research should be carefully considered as some studies may be seen as giving scientific credence and therefore legitimising prejudice and discrimination

Question 62

Sieber and Stanley uses/public policy

Answer 62

Findings may be used by the government for political ends or to shape public policy

Question 63

Sieber and Stanley the validity of research

Answer 63

Some findings that were presented as objective in the past have turned out to be suspect. If socially sensitive research is to be conducted and published, it has to be conducted appropriately and without bias

Question 64

What should researchers consider

Answer 64

Effects of research on participants Effects on publication on wider public Potential bias against people of certain cultures

Question 65

Dealing with Socially Sensitive Research

Answer 65

Be alert to misuse of findings Consider wide effects of publication to findings Take steps to avoid biased findings

Question 66

Benefits of socially sensitive research

Answer 66

Scarr suggested that studies which underrepresent groups may later promote group to be understood. For example in 1952 homosexuality was listed as a sociopathic personality disorder. However later a study was made to suggest homosexuality is a typical expression of human sexual behaviour.

Question 67

What’s a disadvantage of socially sensitive research

Answer 67

In some studies there could be negative consequences for the groups being studied. For example research investigating genetic basis of criminality found a criminal gene. If this is true, does it mean some people should be convicted for just having the gene

Question 68

A problem is that there is often bias in methodology Explain

Answer 68

Researchers warned that the way in which h research questions are phrased and investigated may influence the way in which findings are interpreted. Cross cultural research my be blighted by cultural superiority on the part of researchers