Aggression

Question 1

Aggression

Answer 1

• All behaviour that is intended to inflict physical or psychological harm on another individual who does not want to be so treated

Question 2

Pro- Social aggression

Answer 2

• Aggressive behaviour that is intended to benefit others or serve a socially acceptable purpose

e.g when the police shoot a terrorist who has murdered hostages and is threatening others

Question 3

Sanctioned aggression

Answer 3

• Aggressive behavior that is officially approved or socially accepted within certain contexts

e.g self- defence

Question 4

Institutional aggression

Answer 4

• Aggression becomes socially acceptably- a group norm
• No longer shocking or unusual to members of the institution
• Aggression is not punished

Question 5

Situational explanations

Answer 5

• Environmental factors that affect aggression
  Deprivation Model:
• Outlined some of the deprivations that inmates experience on a daily basis during their sentence

Question 6

Deprivations outlined by Sykes

Answer 6

1. Deprivation of liberty:
- Prisoner is no longer a person who can be trusted to live in a free world- no freedom
2. Deprivation of autonomy:
- Prisoners realise they have no power and that they have very few choices to make on a daily basis
3. Deprivation of goods and services:
- Deprived of goods that they would expect to experience if they were not in prison- e.g hairdressers, gym
4. Deprivation of heterosexual relationships:
- Female companionship is an important part of their self- identity
5. Deprivation of security:
- Prisoners report fears for their own security + heightened sense of threat
- Deprivations lead to increased frustration for prisoners
- Inmates act aggressively towards other in an effort to both reduce frustration + to obtain resources they lack

Question 7

For and against the situational explanation for institutional aggression

Situational explanations disagree that aggression is caused by the individuals

Answer 7

SUPPORTING SITUATIONAL:
- Cunningham- analysed inmate homicides in prisons. Murders in prisons seemed to be linked to deprivations e.g sharing cells and boundaries- SUPPORTS situational explanations- Homicides followed arguments between cell- sharing inmates, where boundaries were judged to have been crossed- increasing aggression. Deprivations lead to aggression.
- Zimbardo- SPE- Examined the effects of situational variables on participants’ reactions and behaviours- SUPPORTS situational explanations- Being in the prison where the guards told them what to do- increased aggression. The situation of ‘guards’ and ‘prisoners’ and conformity to roles creates the aggressive environment.

CONTRADICTING study:
- Hensley- Conjugal visits do NOT reduce aggression- CONTRADICTS situational variables- Changing situation does not decrease aggression. Removing deprivations does not lower aggression.

Question 8

Dispositional explanations for institutional aggression

AO1:
- being brought up in a family home with domestic violence/ aggression the child will imitate + model that behaviour so when they grow up they are likely to be aggressive

Dispositional explanation- any explanation of behaviour that considers the importance of the individual’s personality rather than situational influences in the environment.

Answer 8

• Prisoners bring their own social histories and traits with them to the prison environment
• E.g prisoners who are men bring with them a ready- made way of behaving, which they apply to their new institutional setting
• Aggression is used as a way of establishing power and status and to gain access to resources
• Aggression is imported into the prison

Question 9

For and against supporting and criticising the dispositional explanation for institutional aggression

Answer 9

SUPPORTING DISPOSITIONAL:
- Hensley- Conjugal visits do NOT reduce aggression. Found that innate individual characteristics must be contributing to aggression
- Camp and Gaes- Prisoners randomly allocated to low- security prisons and high- security prisons. No difference in aggressive behaviours- Found that features of the prison environment are less important predictors of aggressive behaviour than characteristics of inmates. Individual characteristics lead to aggression.

CONTRADICTING study:
- Zimbardo- SPE- Examined the effects of situational variables on participants’ reactions and behaviours- Found that individual characteristics do not lead to aggression- became aggressive after guards told them what to do.

Question 10

Social psychological explanations of human aggression- SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY

Answer 10

• Social Learning of Social psychological explanation of aggression was proposed by Bandura.
• Children learn aggression when they see a role model behaving in a particular aggressive way and reproduces that aggressive behaviour.
• The child is then said to be imitating the aggressive behaviour of the role model.
• This is likely to lead to vicarious reinforcement as the child expects the same reward

Question 11

Mediational cognitive processes of aggression

Answer 11

• Attention- someone can only learn through observaton if they attend to the model’s behaviour- e.g The individual focuses on observing aggressive behavior, such as a role model engaging in aggression.
• Retention- To model the behaviour, it needs to be remembered- e.g The observed aggressive actions are mentally stored in memory for future reference.
• Motor reproduction- the individual needs to be able to reproduce the aggressive behaviour- e.g The individual assesses their ability to physically replicate the aggressive behavior they observed.
• Motivation- an individual expects to receive positive reinforcement for the modelled behaviour- e.g The individual is driven to reproduce the aggressive behavior if they expect positive outcomes or reinforcement, such as social approval or achieving a goal.

Question 12

AO3 Supporting research- Social psychological explanations of human aggression- SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY

Answer 12

• Bandura made 3 conditions with children where they saw an adult model kicked and punched the Bobo doll
• Condition 1- Children saw the adult being rewarded by a second adult
• Condition 2- Children saw a second adult telling off the adult model for the aggressive behaviour
• Condition 3- Adult model was neither rewarded or punished
  Findings:
• Condition 1- Children behaved most aggressively
• Condition 2- Children behaved least aggressively
  Evidence for mediational processes- all children learned aggression- but didn’t necessarily carry out the behaviour
  ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
• Patterson- through the use of surveys/ questionnaires they found that very aggressive children are raised in homes of high aggression, little affection, and little positive feedback. This suggests that there is support for the important role played by parents in modelling acceptable behaviour
  ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
  CONTRADICTORY EVIDENCE:
• Environemental reductionist- whether a child is aggressive or not is due to role models- Bandura ignored biological factors
• Reciprocal determinism- you choose your role models if role model is aggressive and is rewarded you will also be aggressive. However, have some free wil to choose role model- some element of choice

Question 13

Social psychological explanations of human aggression- FRUSTRATION- AGGRESSION HYPOTHESIS

Answer 13

• Frustration is when you are trying to reach a goal but are stopped- goal is thwarted
• Frustration leads to an aggressive drive which will be released in the presence of aggressive cues and we will behave aggressively.
• The aggressive act has a cathartic effect, so our aggressive drive is released until frustration builds up again
• Hypothesis recognises that aggression is not always expressed directly against the source of frustraton-> displaced onto a safer target

Question 14

AO3- Supporting evidence- Social psychological explanations of human aggression- FRUSTRATION- AGGRESSION HYPOTHESIS

Answer 14

• Young children were frustrated when showning them a roomful of very attractive toys which they were not allowed to play with
• The children stood behind a screen looking at the toys
• A control group of children were not frustrated and allowed to play with the toys immediately
• Results found that while the control group played nicely with the toys, the “frustrated” group of children were extremely destructive in their behaviour- i.e smashing the toys, throwing them against the walls and stamping on them
  ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
• Researchers found that when a participant is frustrated (caused by a receiving a number of electric shocks) and is then in the presence of an environmental stimuli which has an aggressive cue- value e.g a weapon, they were more likely to exhibit aggression (give a high number of shocks) than if they were in the presence of something neutral (e.g a tennis racket)- more likely to relaease aggression with cues

Question 15

Social psychological explanations of human aggression- DE- INDIVIDUATION

Answer 15

• Explain the behaviour of individuals in crowds
• Humans have a natural tendency to be aggressive if they think they can get away with it
• It refers to the psychological state in which an individual loses their personal iddentity and takes on the identity of the social group
• The loss of personal identity that occurs when you are de-individuated by being part of a crowd/uniform (more anonymous you feel- more you have de-individuation effect) means that individuals feel less constrained by norms of social behaviour, and are more likely to behave in an aggressive way

Question 16

AO3- DE- INDIVIDUATION

Answer 16

• Research asked participants “If you could do anything humanly possible with complete assurance that you would not be detected or held possible, what would you do?”- 36% = antisocial behaviour, 26% = actual criminal acts, murder/ rape, 9% = pro- social
• Zimbardo conducted a study by asking female students to shock a confederate: Half participants = de- individuated, other half = easily identifiable. De- individuated group were more aggressive- GAVE MORE ELECTRIC SHOCKS
  ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
• Zimbardo’s SPE- guards were de- individuated (e.g glasses), prisoners were de- individuated (e.g referred to by numbers). Prisoners did not behave aggressivel but they did conform to the role of being a prisoner. De- individuation does not always lead to aggression

Question 17

Media influences on aggression including the effects of computer games- Do these games acutally cause violence and aggression?

Answer 17

• Research demonstrates a consistent relationship between violent video game use and increases in aggressive behaviour, aggressive cognitions and aggressive effect, and decreases in pro- social behaviour, empathy and sensitivity to aggression
• Accumulation of risk factors that tend to lead to aggressive or violent behaviour

Question 18

Cognitive priming

Answer 18

• Exposure to one stimulus influences the response to a second stimulus

Question 19

Cognitive priming can INCREASE aggression in 2 ways:

Answer 19

1. Children can learn scripts (way to behave in a social situation) from playing violent video games. These scripts are activated when we encounter cues that we perceive as aggression or cues we have encoded at the same time as the aggressive script by spreading activation
2. Playing a violent video game can prime previously learned aggressive behaviours. The video game acts as a cue so that previously learned aggression behaviours are more accessible temporarily. Priming effect is temporary and unconscious

Question 20

AO3- Cognitive Priming

Answer 20

• Researchers found that hockey players were deliberately frustrated, then were shown violent or non- violent films where an actor held a walkie- talkie. The boys who saw violent films and had a ref holding a walkie- talkie behaved the most violent- walkie- talkie acted as a cue for aggression. This shows that they learned a violent script- walkie- talkie primed aggressive response- priming effect short lived

CONTRADICTORY:
- Researchers found that higher levels of aggression resulted from more realistic violence. The fictional violence in computer games may not have a strong priming effect. This suggests that animated or cartoon violence may not have an effect on aggressive behaviour. Priming effect is increased when violence is more realistic

Question 21

Desensitisation

Answer 21

• Frequent playing of violent video games allows viewers to “get used to” aggression and violence
• Viewers become less anxious + less sensitive to actual violence
• Someone who has become ‘desensitised’ to violence sees it as normal, will be less likely to intervene when they see violence IRL and are more likely to engage in violence themselves
• Negative attitudes towards violence weaken, less empathy is felt for the victim

Question 22

AO3 Desensitisation

Answer 22

• Young children were shown a violent film clip and found that they were slower to call for help when they saw other children fighting than those who had watched a neutral film. Watching the violent film clip had made children more tolerant of violence

CONTRADICTORY:
- Researchers found that immediately after seeing a violent movie, men were more concerned about murder, and more punitive towards those that commit murder. This finding was found across 4 different countries.

Question 23

Disinhibition

Answer 23

• Uncharacteristic behaviour for the individual is ‘released’ after exposed to media aggression
• Violence in video games often goes unpunished or is even rewarded- this creates new social norms

Question 24

AO3- Disinhibition

Answer 24

• Researchers found that participants who saw a film depicting aggression as vengeance gave more (fake) electric shocks of longer duration to a confederate. This suggests that media violence may disinhibit aggressive behaviour when it is presented as justified. This is because vengeance is a powerful justification for violence given in the media, and justified violence is more likely to be seen as socially acceptable.

CONTRADICTORY:
- Researchers showed people a film of a boxing match where there were 2 endings. No. 1 ending = no apparent consequences. No. 2 = the loser of the fight was seen to take a bad beating and he ended up dying. Participants who did not see the negative consequences were more likely to behave aggressively after viewing the fight than were those who did see the consequences.

Question 25

Neural Mechanisms in Aggression- LIMBIC system

Answer 25

- Limbic system- several subcortical structures (hypothalamus + amygdala) involved in regulating emotional behaviour - Amygdala- assesses and responds to environmental threats: Amygdala ON = aggression, Amygdala OFF = no aggression - Hippocampus- involved in the formation of long term memories . Learned to be aggressive from past experiences. If hippocampus isn\'t working effectively- can't learn aggression

Question 26

Evaluation for the role of the LIMBIC system

Answer 26

SUPPORTING study: - Researchers found that **reduced amygdala volume** can **predict** the **development** of **severe and persistent aggression** - Participants with **LOWER amygdala volumes** exhibited **higher levels of aggression + violence** - **LOWER amygdala volumes** **reduces** the **ability** to **evaluate** the **importance** of **emotional sensory information** CONTRADICTORY study: - Other brain areas also seem to involved in aggression - E.g Pre- frontal cortex is involved in inhibition of aggression in social situations- allow us to get on with people - Under- development in these areas can result in HIGH levels of aggression - Low serotonin levels means the prefrontal cortex CANNOT communicate with the amygdala

Question 27

Role of Serotonin AO1

Answer 27

- LOW brain serotonin makes communications between **limbic system** and **pre- frontal cortex** weaker - Serotonin deficiency hypothesis- LOW levels of serotonin **remove** the **inhibitor effect** of the **prefrontal cortex** therefore **individuals** are **less able to control** impulsive and aggressive behaviour

Question 28

Evaluation of the role of serotonin- AO3

Answer 28

- Researchers found that participants (who had a **prior history** of **aggressive behaviour**) gave **fewer** and **less intense electric shocks** in **response** to **provocation** after being given a **drug** that **enhances serotonin activity** (SSRIs) than those given a **placebo**- suggests **serotonin** may **inhibit aggression levels** and that **aggressive behaviour** may be **due** to **LOW serotonin levels** .................................................................. - Researchers **compared levels** of a **serotonin breakdown product** in the **spinal fluid** between **violent impulsive + non- violent impulsive offenders**- levels were **significantly LOWER** in **impulsive offenders**

Question 29

Hormonal mechanisms in aggression- role of testosterone

Answer 29

- Males have **more testosterone** than females and are also **more aggressive** - Research has shown that **testosterone** **activates** the *amygdala* enhancing its **emotional activity** - When testosterone levels are at their highest- there is a corresponding INCREASE in male- on- male aggressive behaviour

Question 30

Role of Testosterone AO3

Answer 30

SUPPORTING study: - Researchers found that female monkeys exposed to testosterone in the womb were more aggressive and engaged in rough and tumble play - Researchers found a positive correlation between testosterone levels and aggressive behaviour in a sample of male offenders CONTRADICTING study: - Other hormones play a role- over-simplistic- inter- play between testosterone + cortisol - When cortisol is HIGH testosterone is blocked, pre- frontal cortex better able to block aggressive impulses - Testosterone may promote dominance (is an aggressive act) seeking behaviours rather than increasing aggression

Question 31

Genetic factors in aggression, including the MAOA gene

Answer 31

- MAOA gene increases levels of aggression - More likely to be shown in males because it's on X chromosomes - Females can carry MAOA gene but not express it- males will show aggression because there is nothing to cancel it out - Gene has an evolutionary (adaptive) advantage- it's still present- genes more likely to survive, passed down onto next generations- help us to survive- e.g more likely to secure access to mates, defend resources

Question 32

Role of genetic factors AO1

Answer 32

Evidence from twin studies: - Concordance rate for aggressive behaviour defined as physical assault, concordance rates were 50% for MZ twins and 19% for DZ twins- Genetic influence as concordance is higher in MZ than DZ. However, environment plays a part as concordance for MZ isn't 100% and isn't 50% for DZ .................................................................. - Researchers analysed 14000 adoptions in Denmark and found that a significant number of convicted boys with criminal convictions had had biological parents with convictions for criminal violence- shows more similar to bio parents than adoptive parents- showing a genetic component .................................................................. - Researchers bred 25 generations of mice. They chose the most aggressive mice to breed together and the least aggressive to breed together. One group of mice were super- aggressive, the other very docile- shows that aggression levels are genetic. Also environment will have an effect and how they are socialised

Question 33

Against role of genetic factors AO3

Answer 33

- MZ twins share a more similar environment to DZ twins - Difficult to isolate genetic factors as genes and environment interact, e.g aggressive behaviour is only displayed if the person if provoked therefore it is difficult to assess the actual contribution of genetics to aggressive behaviour- shows aggression is not solely down to genes but also environment .................................................................. - Problems with extrapolating from animal studies- Humans have higher order thinking, free will and can overcome biological influences- even if we have genes for aggression

Question 34

Role of MAOA- AO1

Answer 34

- MAOA is an enzyme that regulates the metabolism of serotonin in the brain - Low MAOA- serotonin is unregulated, under produced - Researchers found that a large number of males behaved violently and aggressively, and had been involved in serious crimes of violence e.g rape. These men were found to have abnormally low levels of MAOA in their bodies and a defect in the gene responsible for regulation

Question 35

Evaluation of MAOA AO3

Answer 35

- Researchers studied men who were part of a batterer treatment programme because they had been involved in inflicting intimate partner violence- men with the low- activity MAOA gene were found to be the most violent, engaging in the highest levels of physical ad psychological aggression and inflicting the worst injuries on their partners .................................................................. CRITICAL: - Gene combinations are oversimplistic- intimate partner violence in men was associated with not only MAOA-L buy also with the serotonin transporter gene- not only 1 gene involved in aggression- likely to be many genes responsible for aggressive behaviour rather than a single candidate gene .................................................................. WEAKNESS: - Researchers found an association between high levels of anti- social aggression and MAOA- L but only in those participants and experienced significant trauma in the fist 15 years of life. Suggests a diathesis- stress explanation- diathesis = MAOA variant, stress = trauma Trauma switches gene on- reacting more aggressively.

Question 36

Ethological approach to aggression

Answer 36

- This approach believes that aggression is instinctive (innate response) in all species and is adaptive - The adaptive function of aggression is to establish dominance hierarchies- securing resources - Loren defined aggression as the "fighting instinct in beast and man which is directed against members of the same species"

Question 37

Ritualistic aggression

Answer 37

- Series of behaviours carried out in a set order - Threat displays: dominating animals - Appeasement gestures: submissive animals - These ritualistic behaviours are adaptive - With R.A- aggression allows both individuals to survive and the "defeated" individual is forced to establish territory elsewhere- meaning members of a species spread out over a wider are and have to discover resources in a different place- reducing competition

Question 38

Example of threat displays + appeasement gestures in birds and humans

Answer 38

BIRDS: - Threat display- Puffed- out chest + upright stance - Appeasement gestures- Lowering their body + quivering their wings HUMANS: - Threat display- Invade personal space, eye contact, threatening language - Appeasement gestures- Hands up, back away, break eye contact, apologise

Question 39

Fixed Action Patterns

Answer 39

- The ritualistic aggression seen in animals is made up of a series of Fixed Action Patterns (Fixed behaviours we see) - An innate releasing mechanism (IRM) is a built in physiological process of structure, e.g network of neurons in the brain which monitor the drive, such as aggression - When the aggression is too much, the aggression "spills over" i.e is released as a FAP until the aggressive energy builds up again - An environmental stimulus (e.g face expression) a.k.a sign stimulus triggers the IRM which then "releases" a specific sequence of behaviours - Behaviour sequences = FAP

Question 40

Stereotyped

Answer 40

Relatively unchanging sequences of behaviour- behaviour doesn't change for every species

Question 41

Universal

Answer 41

Same behaviour is found in every individual of species

Question 42

Unaffected by learning

Answer 42

Same for every individual regardless of experience

Question 43

Ballistic

Answer 43

Once the behaviour is triggered it follows an inevitable course + cannot be altered before it is completed

Question 44

Single purpose

Answer 44

Behaviour only occurs in a specific situation + not in any other

Question 45

Response

Answer 45

Response to an identifiable specific sign stimulus (or if it involves communication between members of same species -> releaser)

Question 46

Evaluation/ AO3 of the ethological explanation of aggression

Answer 46

- Studied FAPs in male sticklebacks. The found that if the model had a red spot the male stickleback would be aggressive + attack it, but if there was no red spot, there was no aggression. These aggressive FAPs were unchanged from encounter to another so once triggered it is always completed without any further stimulus. Provides evidence for FAPs in aggression .................................................................. - Cannot account for cultural differences in aggression. E.g aggressive behaviour differs from one culture to another. This shows that culture can override innate predispositions, which is hard for the ethological theory to explain as cultural difference are not universal and not biological .................................................................. - Researchers, like Lorenz, found that FAPs are not "fixed" and outdated. This is a weakness as FAPs can change over time with repeated training. Therefore patterns of aggressive behaviour are more flexible. E.g dogs can be trained out of their FAPs by barking and catching their prey. .................................................................. - Limitation of FAPs is that they can't be applied to human aggression. E.g FAPs cannot be generalised to humans as there are no universals in human aggression. E.g aggression in humans is pre- meditated

Question 47

AO1- Evolutionary explanations of human aggression

Answer 47

- Aggression secures access to males - Females choose aggressive, dominant males - Males fear cuckoldry - Males experience sexual jealousy- ensuring survival of his genes/ own offspring- mate- guarding strategies- constantly checking on the partner to physically restricting their contact with potential romantic competitors. Negative inducements- threats - Females- emotional jealousy- threat of loss of time or economic resources

Question 48

Evaluation/ AO3- Evolutionary explanations of human aggression

Answer 48

- Researchers found that when participants are asked to explain the causes of the aggression in the relationship, jealousy is the most commonly attributed cause- shows that aggression is linked to jealousy - Researchers found a strong positive correlation between men's reports of mate- retention strategies and their wives reports of physical violence against them- M.R.S- linked to later egs of violence - Deterministic- ignores free well. To be aggressive towards other males + partners is in their genes. - Cannot account for cultural differences in aggression. Aggression is higher in India by 70% than the UK which is 8% showing that aggression is more socially acceptable - Temporal validity- in the past there was more aggression between partners however it is no longer socially acceptable + a change in gender roles. Women able to support themselves. Can't apply to evolutionary theory to today

Question 49

???

Answer 49

Alcohol addiction: - Researches surveyed inmates newly admitted to a Canadian prison. They found that higher levels of "serious institutional misconduct" were associated with more severe levels of alcohol dependence Race and age: - Research shows that non- whites and younger inmates are far more likely to be aggressive in prison. Lots of these individuals live in a subculture where aggression is valued, respected and reinforced.- Defend your honour with aggression. Feeling unsafe in neighbourhoods, being involved in drug culture. Gang membership: - Researchers found that members of gangs prior to imprisonment were significantly more likely to commit various types of misconduct- e.g murder/hostage.