Eating behaviour

Question 1

Homeostasis

Answer 1

• Involves mechanisms which detect the state of the internal environment, and also correct the situation to return the body to its optimal state
• A DECLINE in glucose levels in the blood increases hunger
• A RISE in glucose levels leads to feelings of satiation

Question 2

Draw the dual- centre model

Answer 2

NEURAL AND HORMONAL MECHANISMS INVOLVED IN THE CONTROL OF EATING BEHAVIOUR, INCLUDING THE ROLE OF THE HYPOTHALAMUS, GHRELIN + LEPTIN

Question 3

Lateral Hypothalamus (LH)

Answer 3

• “Feeding centre” or “on switch” of the hypothalamus, contains cells that detect levels of glucose in the liver
• LH is activated when glucose levels fall below a certain level
• Causes an individual to become hungry and triggers the motivation to eat, along with searching for and preparing food

Question 4

AO3 Lateral Hypothalamus

Answer 4

• A strength of the LH switching eating behaviour is that damage to the LH in rats causes aphagia (absence of eating)
• However, the stimulation of the LH causes feeding behaviour

Question 5

Role of Leptin + Evaluation

Answer 5

• Hormone produced by adipose (fat) cells
• Levels of leptin in the blood increase along with fat levels and these are detected in the brain by the VMH
• Is an appetite suppressant, contributes to VMH satiety mechanism
• Once levels increase beyond a certain point, the individual feels full and stops eating

AO3:
- Injecting ob/ob mice with leptin causes them to lose weight

Question 6

Role of VMH

Answer 6

-Is the “satiety centre”, the “off switch” of eating behaviour
- Eating food provides the body with glucose, so the levels of glucose circulating in the bloodstream and stored in the liver (as glycogen) rise- these levels are detected by cells in VMH
- Activity in the VMH is then triggered once glucose levels increase past a set point
- LH activity is inhibited at the same time
-The individual becomes satiated
- INCREASE serotonin DECREASE food intake

Question 7

AO3 of VMH

Answer 7

• Damage to the VMH causes rats to overeat, leading to hyperphagia.
• Stimulation of this area inhibits feeding

Question 8

Role of Ghrelin

Answer 8

• Hormone secreted by the stomach
• Hormonal marker of how long since we have last eaten because the amount produced is closely related to how empty our stomach is- MORE ghrelin is released LONGER we can go without food
• Ghrelin levels are detected by receptors in arcuate nucleus

Question 9

AO3 of Ghrelin

Answer 9

• Wren found that participants either received saline or ghrelin intravenously and appetite was measured
• There was a significant increase in food consumption in the ghrelin condition

Question 10

AO3 of the dual- centre model

Answer 10

• A criticism of the dual- centre mdel is that it has an evolutionary approach
• Hunger mechanisms must anticipate and prevent energy deficits, not just react to them
• Shows there must be other psychological mechanisms in place for eating- e.g boredom and sadness
  ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
• A criticism of the dual- centre model is that it has a deterministic approach
• E.g if blood sugar DECREASES and Gherlin INCREASES we will eat.
  E.g fasting demonstrates free will

Question 11

Evolutionary explanation for food preferences

Answer 11

• The evolutionary argument is that any common food preferences we see today must exist because they provided an adaptive advantage
• Those distant ancestors who had such preferences would have been more likely to survive and reproduce
• Therefore we have inherited such preferences

Question 12

Environment of evolutionary adaptiveness (EEA)

Answer 12

• The EEA refers to the ancient environment in which certain traits or behaviours evolved.
• It highlights the selection pressures during our ancestral past that shaped adaptations like food preferences, social behaviours, or fear responses.

Question 13

Preference for sweetness

Answer 13

Food preferences are linked to sweet taste as it is a reliable signal of high energy food

• Steiner placed sugar on the tongues of newborns and found positive facial expressions.
• This supports the theory as babies lack the cognitive ability to learn facial expressions, making their reactions genuine adaptations.
• It has face validity since displeasure with bitter food suggests harm.
• Fructose, a fast-acting sugar in ripe fruits, would have been a favoured food for distant ancestors

Question 14

Preference for fat

Answer 14

High- calorie food such as fat were not readily available to our evolutionary ancestors

• Learning to prefer foods which are high in calories would have carried a definite advantage because calories provide energy important for survival.
• (As fat contains twice as many calories as the equivalent amount of protein or carbohydrates a taste preference for fat is therefore the most efficient route to ensuring high energy food consumption.
• It also contributes to palatability (making food taste good))

Question 15

Evaluation for the evolutionary explanation for food preferences

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Answer 15

• Research by Bell has shown that early exposure to a sweet taste is not necessary for children to develop a preference for such foods.
• E.g People from Northern Alaska that had no experience of sweet foods have been shown to develop a preference for such despite no previous exposure.
• Across the research, no culture without previous exposure to sweet food and drink has rejected such when exposed to it suggesting an innate response. This supports the idea that food preferences are evolutionary.
• Suggest it’s learnt rather than biological
  ……………………………………………………………………
• Criticism is that the evolutionary explanation for food preferences is biologically deterministic.
• This approach argues that our food preferences are determined by factors inherited from the EEA.
• However, some people choose not to be victims of their predetermined taste.
• This is a bad because it assumes people have no free will about their taste preferences and will only want food beneficial to survive or taste.
  An example of people preferring sour food over sweet foods contradicts this, it doesn’t impact their survival.
• This can lead to low self efficacy

Question 16

Food neophobia

Answer 16

• So-called “picky eaters,” who are unwilling to eat more than a handful of familiar items, may actually have food neophobia.
• This can be a learned behaviour related to their strong feelings of disgust when they have tried certain flavours or textures.
• Most kids outgrow food neophobia as they mature and taste buds evolve.

Question 17

Evaluation of neophobia

Answer 17

WEAKNESS:
- Neophobia cannot explain cultural differences in food preferences and avoidance.
- Neophobia today does not have an evolutionary benefit and can lead to malnutrition

STRENGTH:
- The fact that there are only two taste receptors for sweet tastes but 27 for bitter tastes suggests an evolutionarily determined need to avoid bitter-tasting toxic foods.
- Sweet foods are rarely poisonous so they would be perceived as safe to eat, while sour or bitter foods may be toxic

Question 18

Taste Aversion

Answer 18

• An innate predisposition to learn to avoid potentially toxic foods, which are signalled by a bitter or sour taste.

Question 19

Evaluation of Taste Aversion

Answer 19

• An application of Learned taste aversions is that children with neoplastic diseases had an unusual ice cream that was given to them before their drug treatments.
• They were experiencing gastrointestinal toxicity due to the drugs but were subsequently less likely to choose that ice cream again.
• It is suggested that taste aversions induced by drug-associated symptoms may contribute to the appetite loss experienced by cancer patients.

Question 20

The role of learning in food preferences: social influences

Answer 20

Cuddle (UCS) + Chocolate (NS) = comfort (UCR)- Food becomes associated with feelings of happiness
Chocolate (NS) = Comfort (CR)

Eating vegetable (UCS) > rewarded
Family meals + happy

• More likely to eat in future- operant conditioning

Social learning- model role model
(negative attitudes) See mum > food = depressed > learn the same association
See model drinking coffee > praise
Socialising agents include parents, peers and media

Question 21

AO3 Role of learning in food preference: social influences

Answer 21

• Research suggests a link between parents and their children in terms of snack food intake, eating motivation and body dissatisfaction- This supports the learning theory- shows that parents and children respond in a similar way
  ……………………………………………………………………..
• Researchers used peer modelling to change someone’s preferences to vegetables
• E.g children were seated beside someone who preferred a different type of vegetable to themselves
• At the end of the study children showed a shift in their food preferences which was still evident several weeks later- This shows it had a strong effect- which shows that children are using other children as role model- changing their behaviour- learning through modelling

Question 22

Influence of culture- AO1

Answer 22

• Eating is influenced by cultural circumstances
• Cultural and sub- cultural groups have eating practices
• Transmitted via exposure, direct tuition, reinforcement and social learning from parents, peers, school, media
• Clear cultural differences in amount of spices, cutlery used, food habits, ceremonies, sweet treat after meal

Question 23

Influence of culture AO3

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Answer 23

• Culture may be the best predictor of food preferences, habits and attitudes
• Schiller reported that in cultures where chilli is an important flavour, observing adults eating it played a large role in persuading children to eat chilli- flavoured food- This shows they acquire a taste for chilli- social learning pathway- watching role models
• Menella found that by adulthood cultural influences over- rode genetic ones, especially in the degree of preference for sweet tasting food- preference for sweet is genetic- culture decides how much we can eat/ expect
• Macintyre found that the media has a major impact on what people eat and their attitudes towards food, however, this influence is limited by personal circumstances such as age and income- Although we have access to social media and we are influenced by media we are limited by what foods we can afford

Question 24

Neural/ Biological explanations for AN- Serotonin AO1

Answer 24

• Reducing their calorie intake, reduces anxiety assocated with Serotonin
• High levels of serotonin are linked with anxiety, being obsessive and perfectionist
• INCREASED levels of serotonin INCREASES anxiety- whenever you eat INCREASES anxiety
• Underweight AN- starving themselves

Question 25

AO3- Supporting studies- Serotonin

Answer 25

- Bailer used **fMRI scans** to **compare serotonin activity** in **recovered female anorexics** and **female non- sufferers**, and found **heightened serotonin levels** in **several brain areas** of the **anorexics**, especially those with the **highest level of anxiety**

Question 26

AO1- Dopamine

Answer 26

- **Dopamine receptors** are **overactive** (in the basal ganglia) - **High levels** of dopamine - **Don't find eating motivating**- short rewards - **Long- term rewards of losing weight** are **MORE** **important**

Question 27

AO3- Supporting Studies- Dopamine

Answer 27

- Bailer administered **amphetamine** to their participants to **increase the release of dopamine** - **Healthy** participants experienced **euphoria** (INCREASE dopamine) but **AN** patients experienced **anxiety**- shows that they are **reacting inappropriately to dopamine**

Question 28

Genetic explanations- AO1

Answer 28

- **Increased risk of suffering** from AN if you have a **close relative** with the disorder - Genes responsible for **high levels of serotonin** is the **1D receptor** - Genes responsible for **high levels of dopamine** is the **D2 receptor + COMT gene** - EPHX2 gene is associated with AN + high levels of cholesterol

Question 29

AO3- Genetic explanation

Answer 29

- Evidence comes from concordance rates from twin studies - Kortegaard assessed the level of AN among 34000 pairs of Danish twins - Concordance rate for MZ twins was 18% and DZ twins 7% - Shows there is a genetic basis because concordance rate is higher than DZ twins- genetic causation of AN - Not entirely genetic- environment plays a factor because the concordance rate for MZ twins must be 100% and 50% for DZ twins

Question 30

Contradictory evidence and other issues- AO3

Answer 30

- Limitations of twin studies- MZ twins share a more similar environment than DZ twins- can explain the differences in concordance rates- experience similar experimental triggers - Genes may have an indirect influence of AN- the gees associated with AN are also associated with perfectionist personalities. Eg being good at dieting- associated with AN, combination of genes can lead to perfectionist. It could be that the genes cause this personality type and AN is a by- product of this

Question 31

Psychological explanations for AN- Cognitive theory

Answer 31

- AN is **caused** by a **breakdown** in **rational thought processes** - **Cognitive distortions**: **Faulty, biased and irrational ways** of thinking that mean we **perceive ourselves, others and the world around us inaccurately and usually negatively.** E.g - Misperceiving the body as overweight when it is underweight - Irrational beliefs: Thoughts that defy logic and rational sense and are likely to interfere with a person's happiness- e.g All or nothing thinking - Idea of perfectionism: - Having to meet the most demanding standards all the time, and failure to do so it judged severely - Cognitive inflexibility: inability to switch cognitive skills from one task to another, instead continuing to apply the same skills to a new situation even when those skills are not helpful

Question 32

Psychological explanations for AN- Cognitive Theory AO3

Answer 32

- Williamson carried out a study with participants choosing from silhouettes of increasing size to match one's own body shape, demonstrating that people with AN consistently overestimate their body size and weight - The AN group showed a marked tendency to overestimate their size and their ideal body shape and was also significantly thinner than it was for the controls .................................................................. - Application- They looked at 26 hospitalised AN patients undergoing CBT and found an increase in weight and a decrease in body concerns which was maintained a year later

Question 33

Psychological explanations for AN- Social Learning Theory

Answer 33

- Children observe models and may later imitate their behaviour - Imitation of a model's behaviour is more likely if the child - Admires the model- e.g older sister - Identifies with the model- INCREASE self- efficacy- see them as real - Sees the model being rewarded for their behaviour- e.g she goes on a diet- she gets rewarded- people say she looks nice - Perceives the modelled behaviour to be "real"- if she can do it, I can do it

Question 34

The Media

Answer 34

- Admire media models - Identify with media models - See media models being rewarded for their behaviour - Perceive media mede's behaviour to be "real" (social media personalities present themselves as "real"- don't show us their actual diet, workouts, photoshop etc)

Question 35

Research on SLT + AN

Answer 35

- Girls who saw the barbie images were significantly more dissatisfied with their body shape + had significantly lower body esteem than the girls who saw the Emme or control images- these girls like + admire barbie, they see her being rewarded, young girl is going to get the same rewards and wants to look like barbie - Criticism- temporal validity- some fashion companies use a range of different sized models- shows the media does not focus on the thin ideal

Question 36

Family Systems Theory

Answer 36

1. Enmeshment- Members of anorexic families are overly involved with each other. One way for the adolescent to assert her independence is by refusing to eat 2. Overprotectiveness- Family members nurture each other excessively. The mother feels that all the decisions she made were for the benefit of her daughter. 3. Rigidity- Anorexic families are extremely inflexible. The family is too rigid to adapt and is thrown into a crisis. 4. Conflict avoidance- There can be no discussion of any issues where a difference of opinion might arise. So the daughter with AN starves herself, as the family refuses to accept there is anything to discuss

Question 37

Family Systems Theory AO3

Answer 37

- STRENGTH- support from research studies. - Researchers compared women aged 16-31 diagnosed with AN with healthy controls - Found that the individuals with AN demonstrated greater disturbances of autonomy than the controls - This shows that the desire for autonomy, rigidity and enmeshment may be risk factors for AN in women. .................................................................. - STRENGTH- evidence that therapies based on FST have had some success in treating AN. - Behavioural family systems theory (BFST) attempts to disentangle family relationships, encourage a person with AN to interact more with people and reduce parental control over eating - The treatment showed that six of the participants with AN were considered "recovered- suggests that FST concepts may have some practical value .................................................................. - However researched studied Portuguese women being treated for eating disorders and found that these families were no more enmeshed or rigid than a sample of non- eating disordered families. - Means that it is difficult to find conclusive support for FST theory, and ultimately it is not a scientific theory because the concepts cannot be tested .................................................................. - WEAKNESS- links between family interaction adn AN depend on mediating factors. - researchers found that family interactions affected eating disorders only in adolescents with high levels of anxiety. - This means that anxiety, depression and peer influences must be mediating factors- these mediating factors are mostly independent of family factors which shows that family factors alone cannot explain AN

Question 38

Obesity + health problems linked to obesity

Answer 38

- Energy intake reamining higher than energy expenditure. BMI of 30 or above - Diabetes, cardiovascular disease, high blood pressure - Depression + anxiety

Question 39

Psychological explanations of obesity

Answer 39

- Restraint theory- going on a diet- leads to putting on weight- paradoxical effect, disinhibition- when the individual eats as much as they want- overeat because of cognitive distortion, LEARN boundary model - Attempting not to eat increases the chances of overeating - Restrained eaters use self- control to suppress their food intake by imposing a diet boundary - When the diet boundary is crossed, disinhibition of eating is likely to occur (what the hell effect)

Question 40

Research support/ Evaluation- Psychological explanations of obesity

Answer 40

- Herman + Mack- Gave dieters + non-dieters either a high or low calorie pre- load. Non- dieters ate less after the high calorie pre- load whereas the dieters ate more demonstrating disinhibition. Supports the boundary model, restraint theory + disinhibition. - Wardle & Beales- took a group of obese women and divided them into 3 conditions- diet, exercise and control. Food intake was assessed at 4 & 6 weeks. The diet group consumed more food, indicating that dieting causes overeating in obese samples- evidence for restraint theory

Question 41

Evaluation of Psychological explanations of obesity

Answer 41

STRENGTH: - Good face validity and uses a flexible not rigid approach - Eat all food groups but manage your eating AND - Holistic approach- takes into account biology- once you go on a diet- it ignores biological cues ................................................................................................. WEAKNESS: - In Fiji, larger bodies are symbols of health and connectedness to the community. People who lose a lot of weight or are very thin are regarded with suspicion or pity. Theory is culture- bound only relates to cultures that have a thin ideal AND - Savage carried out a prospective study into restrained eating. - They measured dietary restraint and disinhibition in women at the start of the study and every 2 years over a 6 year period. - They found that increases in restrained eating were linked to decreases in weight. - This suggests that restrained eating while dieting leads to weight loss rather than weight gain in the long term, the opposite outcome to that predicted by restraint theory

Question 42

DRAW THE BOUNDARY MODEL

Question 43

Biological explanations of obesity

Answer 43

Can explain individual differences in obesity- we are all exposed to the same environmental conditions but only some people become obese

Question 44

Neural explanations of obesity

Answer 44

- Increased levels of the neurotransmitter NPY promotes increases in food intake and weight gain - A decline in leptin levels stimulates motivation centres in the brain which activate eating - So when obese patients lose weight, the drop in fat cells and leptin will trigger over eating

Question 45

Research support for Neural explanations of obesity

Answer 45

- Zhang found that ob/ob mice have a mutation in the leptin gene and d not produce leptin and consume excessive amounts of food and become extremely obese. Injective leptin reduced food intake - Obesity may be caused by a defect in the ob gene, which may lead to a deficiency in leptin production, more NPY being produced and overeating

Question 46

Evaluation issues for Neural explanations of obesity

Answer 46

- Applications- cannot blame obese individuals for overeating. Treat with leptin injections or drugs that "turn off" NPY - Deterministic argument- no free will- once your obese it's impossible to lose weight- successful weight loss maintainers - Reductionist- ignores the psychological motivations to overeat. Suggests obesity is just due to biological factors but there are psychological triggers- e.g stress eating

Question 47

Genetic explanations of obesity

Answer 47

- Family related patterns to obesity - Genes that predispose people to obesity may once have provided a survival advantage - In times of plenty calories are stored as fat which can be used for energy when food is not available (thrifty gene hypothesis- better at storing fat if you have the gene)

Question 48

Research support for genetic explanations of obesity

Answer 48

- Meta- analysis involving 75,000 individuals found heritability estimates for BMI of 74% in MZ twins and 32% in DZ twins. Shows there is a genetic basis (due to genes- with MZ rate higher than DZ twin- environmental factor - Pima Indians in the US have high rates of obesity- this is caused by a gene which increases efficiency of turning food into fate. This gene is necessary to survive in the harsh environment of Mexico. In the high- calorie/ low activity environment of the US this gene leads to obesity

Question 49

Evaluation issues for Genetic explanations of obesity

Answer 49

- Cultural differences in obesity rates- if a behaviour is innate it should be seen in every culture. Suggests that the environment plays a large part in determining obesity. - LIMITATION- there is evidence challenging the roles of the most obvious genes. E.g researchers carried out meta- analysis of 25 studies that investigated genes thought to be involved in regulating leptin + leptin receptors. There was no evidence of a link between these genes + obesity. This raises doubts about the validity of the genetic explanation

Question 50

Explanations for unsuccessful dieting

Answer 50

- Attempting not to eat actually increases the probability of eating - Dieters take longer to feel hungry but then take longer to feel satiated. - Once a "desired" intake has been crossed, they will continue to eat - (AO1)- Thought suppression can make the thoughts the individual is trying to suppress more salient- Theory of ironic processes of mental control- a cognitive decision to eat less or to eat less of a specific food must be made to go on a diet

Question 51

LEARN SPIRAL MODEL

Question 52

AO3- Unsuccessful dieting

Answer 52

STRENGTH: - Evidence for the role of ironic processes - Adriaanse's participants were students who were trying to cut down on their intake of unhealthy snacks. - They were presented with diet intentions expressed in a negative form. The researchers found an ironic rebound effect. - The participants ate unhealthy snacks more often and consumed more calories than a control group. - This finding shows how just thinking of oneself as dieting can lead to the failure of the diet .................................................................. - Researchers found that dieters end up eating more food than non- dieters, supporting the idea that restrained dieting leads to weight gain .................................................................. CRITICAL- cannot explain successful dieting and extreme weight loss- (e.g abnormal- anorexia

Question 53

Explanations for successful dieting

Answer 53

Psychological motivations for weight loss: - Being overweight leads to depression and low self- esteem - Desire to feel better about themselves and boost self- esteem - Reinventing yourself and creating a new identity as a thin person

Question 54

Evaluation for successful dieting

Answer 54

- Researchers interview people who had successfully lost weight and found that successful weight loss maintenance were more likely if weight loss was triggered by a major event- change cognitively - Applications- successful dieting may need to include counselling to address underlying psychological issues .................................................................. - CRITICAL- Gender bias- research focuses on females. Being male and overweight may be more dangerous. Men are less likely to disinhibit than women

Question 55

Mindful eating

Answer 55

Involves paying closer attention to your food and how it makes you feel

Question 56

AO3 Mindful eating

Answer 56

- Salvo- did a study involving 34 females and found that completing a 12- week training on mindful eating resulted in an average weight loss of 4 pounds and improved feelings of self- awareness, self- acceptance and self- compassion