Gender Flashcards

Question

Evaluation of Androgyny

Answer 1

Strength: - Good construct validity. - E.g gave scale to 1000 students and asked them if they were masculine or feminine. - Found people's scores correlated with their own ideas of gender identity Weakness: - Scale has temporal validity - E.g what was masculine and feminine has **changed over time** and is **DATED** - The **distinction** between males and females is **BLURRED**. WEAKNESS: - Judges were American leading to cultural bias - Different cultures would put different traits on the scale - People rate themselves so if they agree to everything = androgynous - Leading to Acquiescence bias

Answer 2

- Conservation is one of the key cognitive abilities that develops as the brain matures at around the age of 6 or 7 - The ability to understand that, despite changes in appearance, the basic properties of an object remain unchanged

Answer 3

- Describes how gender constancy develops - Gender constancy is **achieved** when a child can **conserve gender** - 3 stages: 1. Gender Identity, 2. Gender Stability, 3. Gender Constancy

Answer 4

- Stage theory progression through the stages is based on **brain maturity** - Therefore it is biological, it is **not dependent on education**- all children go through the stages

Answer 5

- Around age of **2**, Kohlberg proposed that **children are able to correctly identify** themselves as *boy* or *girl*- this is **Gender Identity** - At 3 years, most children are **able to identify other people as boys/ men or girls/ women**, and can correct respond to questions such as **"Which one of these is like you?"**- if they are shown a picture of a man or a woman. - Their understanding of gender **tends not to stretch much beyond simple labelling** - Often children of this age group **do not *view* gender as fixed** - (E.g a 2 and 1/2 year old boy may be heard to say "When I grow up I will be a mummy")

Answer 6

- According to Kohlberg, at the age of 4, **children acquire gender stability** - **With this comes the realisation that they will always stay the same gender** - **Children of this age cannot apply this logic to other people in other situations** - They are often confused by **external** changes in appearance- (e.g they may describe a man who has long hair as a woman and they also believe that people change gender if they engage in activities that are more often associated with a different gender)

Answer 7

- Appears in the final stage of development - Kohlberg claimed that around the age of **6, children recognise that gender remains constant across time and situations and this understanding is applied to other people's gender as their own** - As a consequence, **they are no longer fooled by changes in outward appearance** - Although they **may regard a man wearing a dress as unusual, a child is able to understand that he is still a man "underneath"** - Children of this age **begin to seek out gender appropiate role models to identify with and imitate** - (This **connects closely with ideas in SLT** (social learning theorists, in contrast, argue that these processes can occur at any age of rather than only after 6) - For Kohlberg, **once a child has a fully developed and internalised concept of gender at the constancy stage, they embark upon an active search for evidence which confirms that concept** - A **tendency towards gender stereotyping begins to emerge at this age** ## Footnote - Appears in the final development stage around age 6 when children understand gender consistency across time and situations. - They recognize a person's gender despite changes in appearance (e.g., a man in a dress is still a man). - At this stage, children seek gender-appropriate role models to imitate, begin gender stereotyping, and actively search for evidence to confirm their understanding of gender. - (Contrasts with SLT, which suggests these processes can occur at any age.)

Answer 8

STRENGTH: - Munroe's study **supports that this is a biological approach** - E.g Munroe found that there were **similar stages in gender development** in other countries such as Kenya, Nepal; - It is a biological approach based on brain maturity STRENGTH: - Damon told children a story about George, a boy who liked to play with dolls - 4 year- olds said it was fine for George to play with dolls, 6 year olds thought it was wrong for George to play with dolls - This suggests children who have **achieved constancy** have formed **rigid stereotypes** regarding **gender- appropiate behaviour**

Answer 9

WEAKNESS: - Poor temporal validity - E.g it's outdated. - In todays society gender identity can change based on outward appearance WEAKNESS: - **Supporting research** relies on **unsatisfactory methods** to **assess gender constancy** - Kohlberg may have **overestimated** the age at which **children reach each stage** - Bem believed that children have an awareness of gender and gender specific behaviours from around 2 years, due to the development of gender schemas. - Children can't conserve until they have a genital knowledge test otherwise they use outward appearances - This suggests that the typical way of testing gender constancy may misrepresent what younger children actually know

Answer 10

- Schema- Cognitive structure that contains all your information on a topic/ person/ event/ experience - Help us to navigate the world WEAKNESS: - Lead to stereotyping/ discrimination/ racism - Can make mistakes - Become rigid- stop us from accepting new information- hard for schemas to change

Answer 11

- As soon as children learn that people are labelled as "males" and "females" they begin to form **gender schemas** - In- groups: Any group you feel you are part of- Don't want to carry out any behaviour that's like the other group - Out- group: Groups we don't identify with/ don't like - If you're in one group, you oppose the other- **want your group to be the best**- INCREASE self- esteem

Answer 12

- Cognitive- development theory argues that **children's understanding of gender changes with age** - Share Kohlberg's view that children **develop their understanding of gender** by actively structuring their own learning, rather than passively observing and imitating role models

Answer 13

- Once a child has established **gender identity around 2-3 years** he or she will begin to search the **environment for information** that **encourages development of gender schema** - Contrasts with Kohlberg's view that this process only begins after they have progressed through all 3 stages, around age 7, with gender constancy

Answer 14

- For young children, **schemas** are **likely** to be **formed** around **stereotypes** and these **provide** a **framework** that **directs experience** as well as the **child's understanding of itself** - By age 6, children have a rather fixed and stereotypical idea about what is appropriate for their gender - Children are likely to misremember or disregard information that does not fit with their existing schema

Answer 15

- Children tend to have a much better understanding of the schema that are appropiate to their own gender (In- group) - Consistent with the idea that children pay more attention to information, relevant to their gender identity, rather than that of the out- group - It is not until around 8 years, children develop elaborate schemas for both genders, as opposed to just their own - In- group identity also serves to bolster the child's level of self- esteem

Answer 16

- The study by Martin and Little supports the gender schema theory because they found that **preschool children** have **gender stereotypes** about what is **appropriate** for **boys and girls** before they **develop much understanding about gender**, supporting the idea that the formation of gender schemas comes before understanding of gender

Answer 17

- The study by Hoffman supports the gender schema theory because he found that children whose mothers work have less stereotyped views of what men do - E.g children are less likely to show rigid schemas, showing that **children's schemas may be flexible** if information is modelled and shown consistently

Answer 18

- A weakness of gender schema theory is that boys show stronger and earlier preferences for typically male activities, due to the effects of testosterone - This shows that boys show **stronger gender behaviour**

Answer 19

- A weakness of gender schema theory is that schemas are difficult to test - E.g self- report will lead to answers that may not reveal true behaviours showing that the only way to test schemas is by asking questions

Answer 20

- Prior to reaching the phallic stage, children have **no concept of gender identity**- at the **end of phallic stage- gender identity occurs- notice physical differences between boys and girls** - They have **no understanding of "male" or "female"** so do not categorise themselves or others in that way - In the phallic stage, the focus of pleasure for the child switches to the genitals, within this stage children experience Oedipus complex (boys) or Electra complex (girls) - Stages are crucial in formation of gender identity

Answer 21

- Phallic stage- boys develop incestuous feelings towards their mother - They harbour a jealous and murderous hatred for their father - Boy fears he may be castrated by his father for his feeling towards his mother - Conflict: Lust for mother and fear of father - To resolve the conflict, boy gives up his love for his mother and begins to identify with his father

Answer 22

- Phallic stage- girls experience penis envy- seeing themselves and mothers as being in competition for their father's love - Girls develop a double- resentment towards their mother 1. Mother is a love rival standing in the way of the father 2. Mother is blamed by daughter for having no penis - Girls over time come to accept that they will never have a penis and substitute penis envy with desire to have children, identifying with mothers - Conflict: Between lust for father and fear of losing mother's love

Answer 23

Identification: Towards the end of the phallic stage, children resolve their conflicts by identifying with the same sex parent. - Develops a superego (adopting that parent's morals), gender identity and role Internalisation: Involves children taking on board the gender identity of the same- sex parent

Answer 24

1. Researchers found that boys whose fathers are absent during the Oedipus complex around age 5 will show less sex- typed behaviour. This supports Freud's idea of identification with same- sex parent is key in the development of gender role

Answer 25

1. Lacks empirical data. E.g there is zero evidence. This shows that Freud's theory is unscientific because it cannot be falsified 2. There is temporal validity. E.g the role of the mother and father now is different than in Victorian times. This shows that there is a **blur between roles of mother and father. Resulting in less strong gender role** 3. Freud ignored the impact of siblings on gender development. Showing that Freud is only centered around the impact of the mum and dad and isn't taking siblings into account

Answer 26

- Biology alone cannot fully account for the differences in masculinity and femininity - Gender concept is shaped mainly by observation and imitation of socialising agents - Socialising agents model examples of gender appropriate and inappropriate behaviours and the consequences of conforming or non- conforming to **gender norms**

Answer 27

E.g a girl likes Barbie- she admires her because she is kind and pretty- 1st stage of observational learning- attention- she is focused on what Barbie does She identifies with Barbie because she feels similar with Barbie, and she has achievable qualitites She sees Barbie wearing make- up and having a boyfriend and a car- and sees Barbie being rewarded for this The Girl expects the same reward **Motor reproduction- the girl will imitate Barbie after seeing her behaviour Motivation- Girl must be motivated to repeat the behaviour** Reciprocal determinism: - Children will put themselves in environments that reinforce their behaviour- e.g a "girly" girl will want to hang round with other girls- these friends become her role model - One thing causes another- we can choose our role models and role models determine our behaviour

Answer 28

- Block found that **boys** are **positively reinforced** more for behaviours reflecting **independence, self- reliance and emotional control**. - **Girls** are **reinforced** for **dependence, nurturance, empathy and emotional expression** - Shows **differential reinforcement- boys and girls reinforced for different things** ..................................................................................... - Huston found that although **parents** believe they **respond** in the **same way** to **aggressive acts** committed by **sons and daughters**, they actually **intervene more frequently and quickly when girls behave aggressively** - **Girls punished quicker** than boys when they **act aggressive** because it i**sn't part of their gender role**

Answer 29

- Bianchi and Bakeman found that **neither parents nor teachers encouraged aggressive behaviours** in BOYS, yet boys, including those who **didn't have a male role model**, were found to be **more aggressive than girls**- shows **boys and girls are socialised the same** but **boys are still more aggressive**- supports biology- goes against learning ## Footnote David Reimer study- socialised as a girl but never accepted his female role- switched back to male

Answer 30

- Media is a **key source of gender- related information** - **Role models provide information** on how the **different GENDERS should behave** - Child will see the role models reinforced or punished for their **gender related behaviours** - **Child then has the expectation of the same outcome for similar behaviours** E.g EMMA WATSON: - Influenced by media - Teenage girls likes/ admires her Identifies with her- similiar to her - She's real- what she does is achievable - Does a feminist speech- loads of her praise - Vicarious reinforcement- expect the same reward- meditational processes (in between observing and carrying out behaviour) - Copy her behaviour- imitation- become feminist

Answer 31

1. - Supporting study for media portraying gender is that commercials for boys and girls are produced differently E.g adverts aimed at boys were very loud and used the colour blue whereas adverts aimed at girls were very calm and used the colour pink - This highlights that media is showing the **stereotypical expectations of society** 2. - Supporting study for media portraying gender is that, e.g men are more likely to be shown **exercising control** whereas women are shown to be at the **mercy of others.** - This highlights that women are normally portrayed as victims and men in a position of power, showing the stereotypical roles between males and females. 3. - Contradictory study for media portraying gender is that there are **methodological problems** with the research. - E.g researchers found that heavy TV watchers **held stronger gender- stereotyped beliefs comes from correlational research** - This shows that highly gendered children may like to watch more TV because it **confirms their stereotyped views**

Answer 32

- Mismatch between **biological anatomy** and **gender identity** - Identify more with opposite sex - Diagnostic Statistical Manual (4)- Desire to live and be accepted as a member of the opposite sex, persistent discomfort with one's anatomical sex

Answer 33

Influence of sex hormones: - Influence of sex hormones during foetal development can explain the higher prevalence of gender dysphoria amongst males Males foetuses under- exposed to testosterone will show feminised behaviours - Can lead to a genetic male, labelled a male, with a "female" brain

Answer 34

- Transgender brains do not match their **genetic sex** - The BSTc, located in the Thalamus, is twice as large in men than women and contains twice the number of neurons - The size of the BSTc correlates with the preferred sex rather than the **biological sex**

Answer 35

- WEAKNESS: Chung noted that the **differences in BSTc volume between men and women** do **NOT occur** until **adulthood**, whereas most **transgender people report their feelings of gender dysphoria** in **early childhood**, before puberty showing they **act in a different way** ........................................................................................................................... - WEAKNESS: Pol found that transgender hormone therapy influences the size of the BSTc- could be that the hormone led to the difference in size in BSTc

Answer 36

- Hare looked at the DNA of 112 Male to Female transgender individuals and found that they were more likely to have a **longer version of the androgen receptor gene than in a normal sample** - The effect of this abnormality is reduced action of the male hormone testosterone and this may have an effect on gender developed in the womb (e.g under- masculinisation of the male brain leading to feminised behaviours) - Reduced action of testosterone leads to a genetic male (labelled a male) without a male gender identity (female brain)

Answer 37

- Boys with gender dysphoria may have had parents that reinforce traditionally female behaviour - Behavioural signs of gender dysphoria appear early - Parents may then reinforce the behaviour - Parents may reinforce the biological tendencies - Could also identify with female family members and internalise a female role model- SLT- want to be like role model

Answer 38

- Stoller- studied the **facial features** of boys with gender dysphoria and found that these boys were **physically attractive**- Mothers were treating boys in a **feminine way** - thought babies were **pretty**- **feminising babies** - Stoller believed that the **attractiveness** of the boy triggered **parental feminisation** - Shows that the **social environment** may be *shaping* **gender identity** - Mother treats the boy "as a girl" and **shapes feminine behaviour**

Answer 39

- Gender dysphoria is caused in **males** by the child experiencing extreme separation anxiety before gender identity has been established - The child **fantasises** of a **symbiotic fusion** with his **mother** to **relieve** the **anxiety** - So they can still **experience** **comfort** of **mother** when mother is **absent** - The child becomes the **mother** and **adopts** a **female gender identity**

Answer 40

1. STRENGTH- Stoller found that gender dysphoric males display overly close mother- son relationships that would lead to **greater female identification** and **confused gender identity** -> linking attachment and gender dysphoria 2. STRENGTH- Zucker found that boys eventually diagnosed with gender dysphoria were more likely to be also diagnosed with separation anxiety disorder- co- morbid which backs the psychoanalytic theory -> linking gender dysphoria and anxiety 3. Cole found the range of psychiatric conditions displayed by gender dysphoria individuals was no different to a "normal" population- showing that gender dysphoria itself doesn't cause any psychiatric or mental issues

Answer 41

- Zucker performed a **longitudinal study** on **gender dysphoric females** between 2 and 3 years who had been referred to a clinic. - He found that only **12% of females** were still gender dysphoric at age of 18 and only **20% of males** were still gender dysphoric as adults - A BIOLOGICAL explanation for this is that once they hit puberty- a second flush of testosterone/ oestrogen/ progesterone is in line with behaviours of biological sex.

Gender Flashcards

(65 cards)