1
Q
The nervous system provides what types of sensory information?
A
Pain, sight and taste
2
Q
What are neurons composed of?
A
Dendrites, axon and cell body
3
Q
What is the top section of spine?
A
Cervical
4
Q
What is the middle section of spine?
A
Thoracic
5
Q
What is the lower section of spine?
A
Lumbar
6
Q
What is the CNS composed of?
A
Brain and spinal cord
7
Q
What does the PNS do?
A
Neurons that connect parts of body to CNS and rest of the body and the external environment
8
Q
Peripheral nerve system
A
Cranial and spinal nerves
9
Q
What are interneurons?
A
Spinal cord of brain- translate impulse between afferent and efferent neurons
10
Q
Mechanoreceptors
A
Touch and pressure
11
Q
Nociceptors
A
Pain
12
Q
Chemoreceptors
A
Smell and taste
13
Q
Photoreceptors
A
Sight (light)
14
Q
What system is voluntary control of movement?
A
Somatic nervous system
15
Q
What does the nervous system provides
A
Sensory information- pain, sight, taste (muscle contractions)
16
Q
What is the top of the spine called
A
Cervical
17
Q
What is the middle of the spine called
A
Thoracic
18
Q
What is the bottom of the spine called
A
Lumbar
19
Q
What electrolytes does the nervous system require?
A
Sodium, potassium, magnesium and water
20
Q
The nervous system is composed of two parts that includes
A
Nervous system and peripheral nervous system
21
Q
Brain and spinal cord
A
CNS
22
Q
Cranial and spinal nerves
A
Peripheral nervous system
23
Q
Spinal cord of brain- translate impulse between afferent and efferent neurons
A
Interneurons
24
Q
Touch and pressure
A
Mechanoreceptors
25
Pain
Nociceptors
26
Smell and taste
Chemoreceptors
27
Light (vision)
Photoreceptors
28
Somatic and autonomic nervous system
PNS
29
Voluntary control of movement
Somatic nervous system
30
What does the autonomic nervous system do?
Supply neural inputs to organs- circulating bleed, digesting food, producing hormones
31
Orientation and relative position of all its parts “shooting a basketball and feeling placement”
Proprioception
32
Afferent pathway
CNS receives info from PNS
33
Body’s response (efferent) to integrated sensory information- muscles contract when stretched too far
Motor function
34
What are sesamoid bones, and what is their function?
Small bones embedded in a joint capsule or within tendons where they pass over a joint. They develop in areas of high friction or tension (e.g., the patella) and serve to improve leverage and protect the joint from damage.
35
What are irregular bones, and what are some examples?
Unique shaped bones that do not fit into other bone categories. Examples include the vertebrae, sacrum, coccyx (tailbone), and certain facial bones.
36
What are depressions in bones, and what are two common types with examples?
Depressions are flattened or indented areas of bone. A common type is a fossa, such as the infraspinous fossa on the scapula, which serves as an attachment site for the infraspinatus muscle. Another type is a sulcus, a groove that allows soft tissues like muscles, tendons, and ligaments to pass through.
37
What is the intertubercular sulcus, and where is it located?
The intertubercular sulcus, also known as the groove for the biceps tendon, is located between the greater and lesser tubercles of the humerus (upper arm bone).
38
What are processes in bones, and what is their function?
Processes are projections protruding from bones where tendons and ligaments can attach.
39
What are some common types of bone processes?
Spinous process – found on the vertebrae
Condyle – located at the bottom of the femur and top of the tibia (forms the knee joint)
Epicondyle – found on the inner and outer portions of the humerus (forms part of the elbow joint)
Tubercles – the greater and lesser tubercles at the top of the humerus, attachment sites for shoulder muscles
Trochanters – located at the top of the femur, serve as attachment sites for hip musculature
40
How many vertebrae are in the cervical spine, and what is its function?
The cervical spine has 7 vertebrae (C1–C7). It forms a flexible framework that provides support and motion for the head.
Breakfast at 7:00 a.m. = 7 cervical vertebrae at the neck
41
What are the characteristics of the thoracic spine (T1–T12)?
The thoracic spine consists of 12 vertebrae in the upper and middle back. Each vertebra articulates with a rib, forming the rear anchor of the rib cage, and they increase in size from top to bottom. Lunch at 12:00 p.m. = 12 thoracic vertebrae at the mid-back
42
What is the function of the lumbar spine, and how many vertebrae does it have?
The lumbar spine has 5 vertebrae (L1–L5) located in the lower back. These are the largest spinal segments, supporting most of the body’s weight and attaching to many back muscles. Dinner at 5:00 p.m. = 5 lumbar vertebrae at the low-back
43
What is the sacrum, and what is it composed of?
The sacrum is a triangular bone below the lumbar spine, made up of 5 fused vertebrae that join together during adulthood.
44
What is the coccyx, and where is it located?
The coccyx, or tailbone, is located below the sacrum and is made up of 3 to 5 small fused bones.
45
Q: What are joints, and how are their movements described in osteokinematics and arthrokinematics?
Joints are formed when one bone articulates with another.
Osteokinematics describes the movement of bones (e.g., flexion, extension).
Arthrokinematics describes joint movement—how the bone surfaces interact—with three major types: roll, slide (glide), and spin.
46
What is a gliding (plane) joint, and where is an example found?
A gliding joint, or plane joint, is a nonaxial joint that allows simple movements such as back and forth or side to side.
Example: Joints between the carpal bones of the wrist.
47
What is a condyloid joint, and what type of movement does it allow?
A condyloid joint is formed when the condyle of one bone fits into the elliptical cavity of another. It allows movement mostly in one direction with limited movement in others.
Example: Metacarpophalangeal joints (joints of the fingers).
48
What is a hinge joint, and what are some examples?
A hinge joint is a uniaxial joint that allows movement predominantly in one direction, like bending and straightening.
Examples: Elbow, interphalangeal joints (toes), and ankle
49
What are ligaments, and what are they made of?
Ligaments are fibrous tissues that connect bone to bone and provide stability and sensory input for proprioception. They are primarily made of collagen, with some elastin, and their collagen fibers are aligned parallel to resist tension, giving them strong tensile strength.
50
What role does elastin play in ligaments, and how does it vary between ligaments?
Elastin gives ligaments flexibility and elastic recoil to withstand bending and twisting. The amount of elastin varies; for example, the anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) has very little elastin and is mostly collagen, making it better for resisting strong forces and stabilizing the knee.
51
Why do ligaments heal slowly or poorly after injury?
Ligaments have poor vascularity (low blood supply), which means they heal slowly and adapt more slowly to physical stress, such as that caused by exercise
52
What is the growth plate, and what role does it play during childhood and adolescence?
The growth plate is a specialized cartilage disc located in the epiphysis of bones. It is responsible for longitudinal bone growth (bone lengthening) during childhood and adolescence.
53
What is fascia, and what does it do?
Fascia is connective tissue that surrounds skeletal muscles and connects them to surrounding muscles.
54
What is the epimysium, and what is its other name?
The epimysium is the layer of fascia that directly surrounds an entire muscle. It is also known as deep fascia.
55
What are fascicles, and how are they wrapped?
Fascicles are the largest bundles of muscle fibers within a muscle. Each fascicle is wrapped in connective tissue called the perimysium.
56
What is endomysium, and what does it surround?
Endomysium is the connective tissue that surrounds individual muscle fibers within a fascicle.
57
What do tendons connect, and what is a common injury called when they are overstretched or torn?
Tendons connect muscles to bones. A common injury is a strain, which occurs when a tendon is overstretched or torn.
Examples: Achilles tendon (ankle), patellar tendon (knee).
58
What do ligaments connect, and what is a common injury called when they are overstretched or torn?
Ligaments connect bones to bones. A common injury is a sprain, which happens when a ligament is overstretched or torn.
Example: Anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) of the knee.
59
What is the sarcolemma, and what key components are found inside an individual muscle fiber
The sarcolemma is the plasma membrane that encases each individual muscle fiber within the endomysium. Inside the muscle fiber, key components include:
Sarcoplasm (contains glycogen, fats, minerals, and oxygen-binding myoglobin)
Mitochondria (convert food energy into usable energy)
Myofibrils, where muscle contraction occurs.
60
What are myofibrils made of, and what is the functional unit of muscle contraction?
Myofibrils are made up of overlapping myofilaments:
Actin (thin filaments)
Myosin (thick filaments)
These filaments form repeating sections called sarcomeres, which are the functional units of muscle contraction.
61
What roles do tropomyosin and troponin play in muscle contraction?
Tropomyosin is located on the actin filament and blocks myosin-binding sites when the muscle is relaxed, preventing myosin from attaching.
Troponin is also on the actin filament and binds calcium and tropomyosin, allowing muscle contraction to occur by moving tropomyosin away from the binding sites.
62
How do skeletal muscles receive the signal to contract, and what is a motor unit?
Skeletal muscles contract only when stimulated by motor neurons via the neuromuscular junction, a synapse (gap) between the neuron and muscle fiber.
A motor unit consists of one motor neuron and all the muscle fibers it innervates
63
What is an action potential, and which electrolytes help relay this nerve impulse to the muscle?
An action potential is a nerve impulse that travels from the central nervous system through the peripheral nervous system to the muscle via the neuromuscular junction. The electrolytes sodium (Na⁺) and potassium (K⁺) help propagate this impulse along the nerves.
64
What role do neurotransmitters play at the neuromuscular junction, and what is the primary neurotransmitter involved in muscle contraction?
Neurotransmitters translate the nervous system’s electrical signals into chemical signals that muscle fibers can respond to. Acetylcholine (ACh) is the primary neurotransmitter released into the synapse, where it binds to receptors on the muscle fiber, helping the action potential cross the gap and initiate muscle contraction.
65
What are the main steps of excitation-contraction coupling in muscle contraction?
Nerve impulse starts in the CNS and travels down the motor neuron, aided by sodium and potassium ions, to the neuromuscular junction.
Acetylcholine (ACh) is released into the neuromuscular junction, helping the impulse cross the synapse into the muscle fiber.
The impulse travels inside the muscle, stimulating the sarcoplasmic reticulum to release calcium ions.
Calcium binds to the actin filament, enabling myosin heads to attach to actin.
Myosin heads pull actin toward the center of the sarcomere, sliding filaments past each other and shortening the muscle.
66
What are the essential electrolytes for muscle function and their roles?
Calcium: Stimulates actin and myosin interaction inside muscles for contraction.
Potassium and Sodium: Help transmit motor signals down nerve axons.
Water: Acts as the main electrolyte, supporting electrical conductivity and overall bodily functions.
67
What are small motor units, and what type of muscle fibers do they innervate? What functions are they important for?
Small motor units consist of one motor neuron and a few type I muscle fibers (slow-twitch, fatigue resistant).
They contract slowly, generate small forces, and are important for sustained contractions like maintaining posture.
Smaller muscles primarily responsible for body stabilization mostly contain type I fibers.
68
What are large motor units, and what type of muscle fibers do they innervate? What are their primary functions?
Large motor units consist of one motor neuron and many type II muscle fibers (fast-twitch, fatigue faster).
They generate more force more quickly and are important for activities like running and jumping.
Larger muscles that primarily move the body tend to have more type II fibers.
69
What is the all-or-nothing principle in motor units, and how does it affect muscle contraction strength?
Motor units either contract maximally or not at all—there’s no partial contraction (all-or-nothing principle).
Overall muscle contraction strength depends on:
The type of motor units recruited (small or large)
The number of motor units activated simultaneously.
Muscles for fine motor control have fewer fibers per motor unit; muscles for powerful movements have more fibers per motor unit.
70
What are the key differences between type I and type II muscle fibers
Type I fibers: Slow to produce maximal tension, highly fatigue-resistant, also called slow-twitch fibers. ex- stabilizer
Type II fibers: Fast to produce maximal tension, fatigue quickly, also called fast-twitch fibers. ex- sprinting
71
What are long bones, and give two examples.
Long bones have a long, cylindrical shaft with irregular or widened ends.
Examples: Humerus (upper arm), Femur (thigh bone)
72
What are short bones, and give two examples.
Short bones are similar in length and width and are cubical in shape.
Examples: Carpals (wrist), Tarsals (ankle)
73
What are flat bones, and give three examples.
Flat bones are thin and protective, providing broad surfaces for muscle attachment.
Examples: Scapulae (shoulder blades), Sternum (breast plate), Ribs
74
What are irregular bones, and give an example.
Irregular bones have a unique shape and function that doesn't fit into other bone categories.
Example: Vertebrae (spinal column)
75
What are sesamoid bones, and give an example.
Sesamoid bones are small and round, embedded in a joint capsule or where tendons pass over joints.
Example: Patella (kneecap)
76
How is the heart divided, and what are the functions of each side?
The heart has four chambers: two atria (upper chambers) and two ventricles (lower chambers).
The right side is the pulmonic side: it receives deoxygenated blood from the body and pumps it to the lungs for oxygen.
The left side is the systemic side: it receives oxygenated blood from the lungs and pumps it to the rest of the body.
77
What is the function of the atria in the heart?
The atria are the smaller, upper chambers of the heart.
The right atrium collects deoxygenated blood from the body.
The left atrium collects oxygenated blood from the lungs.
They act as reservoirs to gather blood before it moves into the ventricles.
78
What is the function of the right ventricle?
The right ventricle receives deoxygenated blood from the right atrium.
It pumps the blood to the lungs via the pulmonary artery.
It has thin walls and pumps under low pressure because it only sends blood to the nearby lungs.
79
: What is the function of the left ventricle?
The left ventricle receives oxygenated blood from the left atrium.
It pumps blood to the entire body.
It has thicker walls and pumps under high pressure to overcome the long distance and resistance of systemic circulation.
80
What does the phrase “Right returns and left leaves” mean in relation to heart function?
Right returns: The right atrium receives deoxygenated blood returning from the body, and the right ventricle sends it to the lungs.
Left leaves: The left atrium receives oxygenated blood from the lungs, and the left ventricle pumps it out to the body.
81
What are the structural and functional features of cardiac muscle fibers?
Cardiac muscle fibers are shorter and more tightly connected than skeletal muscle fibers.
They contain intercalated discs, which:
Hold cells together during contraction
Create electrical connections between cells, allowing the heart to contract as one unit.
82
What is the role of the SA node and AV node in the heart’s electrical conduction system?
The SA node (in the right atrium) is the pacemaker of the heart; it initiates the electrical impulse that triggers a heartbeat.
Internodal pathways carry the impulse from the SA node to the AV node.
The AV node (between atria and ventricles) delays the impulse, allowing the ventricles to fill with blood before they contract.
83
What is stroke volume, and how is it calculated?
Stroke Volume = End-Diastolic Volume (EDV) – End-Systolic Volume (ESV)
EDV = blood volume in the ventricle before contraction (fully filled).
ESV = blood volume remaining in the ventricle after contraction.
84
What is cardiac output, and how is it calculated?
Cardiac output (Q) is the volume of blood pumped by the heart per minute (mL/min).
It is calculated as:
Cardiac Output = Heart Rate × Stroke Volume
Reflects the overall efficiency and workload of the heart.
85
What is the largest artery in the body
The aorta is the largest artery in the body and carries oxygenated blood away from the heart
86
Carotid artery
Supplies blood to the brain
87
Subclavian artery
supplies blood to the arms
88
Mesenteric arteries
supply the digestive system
89
Renal artery
supplies the kidneys
90
Iliac artery
supplies the pelvic and reproductive organs
91
Medium-sized arteries further divide into smaller arteries
arterioles
92
Vasculogenesis
Formation of new capillaries.
93
Angiogenesis
formation of new capillaries from existing vessels.
94
Which substance can move both into and out of capillaries?
Water
95
Which substance enters capillaries from body tissues?
Carbon Dioxide
96
Which substances exit capillaries into body tissues?
Glucose and oxygen
97
What is the systolic and diastolic range for normal blood pressure?
Systolic <120 and diastolic <80
98
What blood pressure range is considered elevated?
Systolic 120–129 and diastolic <80
99
What defines Stage 1 hypertension in terms of systolic and diastolic values?
Systolic 130–139 or diastolic 80–89
100
What defines Stage 2 hypertension?
Systolic ≥140 or diastolic ≥90
101
What systolic and/or diastolic values indicate a hypertensive crisis?
Systolic >180 and/or diastolic >120
102
Is inspiration active or passive?
Active
103
What happens to thoracic cavity volume and intrapulmonary pressure during inspiration?
Thoracic cavity volume increases, and intrapulmonary pressure decreases.
104
What causes air to be drawn into the lungs during inspiration?
Intrapulmonary pressure falls below atmospheric pressure.
105
Is expiration an active or passive process?
Expiration can be either active or passive, involving relaxation of inspiratory muscles.
106
Name the bones involved in the respiratory pump.
Sternum, ribs, and vertebrae.
107
Name the primary muscles involved in inspiration
Diaphragm, external intercostals, scalenes, sternocleidomastoid, pectoralis minor
108
Name the primary muscles involved in expiration
Internal intercostals and abdominals.
109
During normal breathing, is expiratory ventilation active or passive?
Passive—it occurs due to relaxation of the inspiratory muscles.
110
Diaphragm contracts- moves down
Inspiration
111
Diaphragm relaxes- moves up
Exhalation
112
How does breathing help regulate blood flow back to the heart?
The respiratory pump decreases intrathoracic pressure during inspiration, lowering pressure in the right atrium and improving blood circulation back to the heart.
113
What happens to intrathoracic pressure during inspiration?
Decreases
114
What is a potential negative effect of the Valsalva maneuver on the heart?
It exerts compressive force on the heart, making it harder for blood to return to the heart.
115
Why is it important to breathe during exercises, especially resistance training?
To avoid decreased blood return to the heart caused by breath-holding and compressive forces
116
What are the two categories of respiratory passages?
Conducting airways and respiratory airways.
117
What is the function of the conducting airways?
They are the structures through which air travels before entering the respiratory airways
118
Name the structures included in the conducting airways.
Nasal and oral cavities, mouth, pharynx, larynx, trachea, and bronchioles.
119
What three things happen to the incoming air in the conducting airways?
It is purified, humidified, and warmed or cooled to match body temperature.
120
Name the structures included in the respiratory airways.
Alveoli
Alveolar sacs
121
Blood Flow Through the Heart
1. Deoxygenated blood enters the heart through the superior and inferior vena cava
2. Blood flows into the right atrium
3. Passes through the tricuspid valve
4. Enters the right ventricle
5. Flows through the pulmonary valve
6. Travels into the pulmonary artery
7. Blood goes to the lungs to receive oxygen
8. Oxygenated blood returns to the heart via the pulmonary veins
9. Enters the left atrium
10. Passes through the bicuspid (mitral) valve
11. Enters the left ventricle
12. Flows through the aortic valve
13. Exits through the aorta
14. Blood is distributed to the rest of the bod
122
What are the primary endocrine glands?
Hypothalamus, pineal, pancreas, thyroid, pituitary, adrenal, and reproductive glands.
123
Which gland serves as the main communicator between the body and the pituitary gland?
Hypothalamus
124
What gland is known for controlling the functions of many other endocrine glands?
Pituitary gland
125
Which two additional organs can secrete hormones aside from the main endocrine glands?
Liver and Stomach
126
What is the primary function of glucagon?
To stimulate the liver to convert glycogen stores into glucose and release it into the bloodstream.
127
How does glucagon affect lipolysis (fat burning) in the short term?
It stimulates lipolysis, having the opposite effect of insulin
128
How does exercise affect the relationship between insulin and glucagon?
It shifts the balance by lowering insulin levels and increasing glucagon secretion to maintain blood glucose levels.
129
What are the two main catecholamines?
Epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine
130
What part of the adrenal glands produces catecholamines?
The adrenal medulla (inner part)
131
What is the main purpose of cortisol during stress?
To maintain energy supply through the breakdown of fats and proteins
132
What is gluconeogenesis?
The process of creating glucose from noncarbohydrate sources like fats and proteins
133
How does cortisol contribute to gluconeogenesis?
It stimulates the breakdown of fats and proteins to create energy
134
What two lifestyle factors are known to increase cortisol levels?
Low blood glucose and poor sleep
135
What are the primary functions of thyroid hormones?
Regulating heart rate, body temperature, metabolism, and other physiological functions
136
What happens if thyroid hormone levels are too low?
The hypothalamus signals the pituitary gland to release thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
137
Besides metabolism, what other physiological functions do thyroid hormones affect?
Protein synthesis, sensitivity to epinephrine, heart rate, breathing rate, and body temperature
138
What hormone does the thyroid release that helps maintain bone mineral density?
Calcitonin
139
What is the correct order of structures food passes through in the large intestine, starting with the cecum?
Cecum → Ascending colon → Transverse colon → Descending colon → Sigmoid colon → Rectum → Anus
140
Body in a standing posture with arms hanging down by sides and palms facing toward is called what?
Anatomical position
141
What does lateral mean in anatomical terms?
Relatively farther away from the midline or toward the outside of the body.
142
What does contralateral mean?
Positioned on the opposite side of the body. The right foot is contralateral to the left hand.
143
What does ipsilateral mean?
Positioned on the same side of the body. The right foot is ipsilateral to the right hand.
144
What does proximal mean?
Positioned nearest to the center of the body or other identified reference point. The wrist is more proximal to the elbow than the fingers
145
What does distal mean?
Positioned farthest from the center of the body or other identified reference point. The ankle is more distal to the hip than the knee.
146
Bisects body into left and right sides
Sagittal Plane
147
Bisects front and back halves
Frontal Plane
148
Bisects body upper and lower halves
Transverse Plane
149
NASM
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