Anatomy Final: Study Guide

Question 1

Define Anatomy

Answer 1

Anatomy is the study of structure.

Question 2

Describe anatomical position.

Answer 2

Individual stands upright, feet parallel on the floor, head level, eyes looking forward, arms are at sides of body with palms forward so thumbs are pointing away from the body.

Question 3

Define parietal layer.

Answer 3

Lining of the internal surface of the body wall.

Question 4

Define visceral layer.

Answer 4

Covers the external surface of organs.

Question 5

Define: Golgi apparatus

Answer 5

“Shipping and Receiving”

Stacked cistern whose edges bulge, pinch off, and give rise to small transport and secretory vesicles

Function:
to receive proteins and lipids from rough ER for modification, sorting, and packaging

List the functions of the nucleus.
- Control center of cell activities:
Controls protein synthesis and directions functional/structural characteristics of the cell.
Contains/controls DNA.

Question 6

Define: Lysosomes

Answer 6

“Clean up crew/Garbage collector”

Vesicles generated by the Golgi apparatus

Contain enzymes used to digest and remove waste products and damaged organelles within the cell.

Question 7

Define: Cytosol

Answer 7

the viscous, syruplike fluid of the cytoplasm

Question 8

Define: Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum

Answer 8

Continuation of rough ER.

Functions:

• synthesis, transport, and storage of lipids; steroids
• metabolism of carbs
• detox of drugs, alcohol, and poisons

Liver and Kidneys

Question 9

Define: Ribosomes

Answer 9

Free or Fixed

Small, dense granules with a small and large subunit

Function:
protein production

Question 10

Define: Mitochondria

Answer 10

“Powerhouse of the cell”

Function:
- produce ATP

Question 11

Describe the sequence of mitosis.

Answer 11

1. Interphase: Making of cell components needed for cell division (like DNA)
   * 2. Prophase: Chromatin coils and chromosomes appear; nucleolus breaks down; spindle fibers form from centrioles; centrioles move toward opposite poles; nuclear envelope breaks down
   * 3. Metaphase: Spindle fibers attach to centromeres of chromosomes; chromosomes align at equatorial plate of the cell
   * 4. Anaphase: Centromeres held by chromatid pairs separate; each sister chromatid is now a chromosome with its own centromere; sister chromatids separate and move toward opposite ends of the cell; cytokinesis begins
   * 5. Telophase: chromosomes uncoil; nucleolus reforms within each nucleus; spindle fibers breakdown and disappear; new nuclear envelope forms around each set of chromosomes; cytokinesis continues
2. Cytokinesis: cleavage furrow pinches at the equator and the cytoplasm is split in half. The mother cell becomes 2 daughter cells that are identical the mother cell.

Question 12

Describe the germ layer: Ectoderm.

What body parts are derived from the ectoderm?

Answer 12

Epidermis of skin (including hair, nails, sweat glands, mammary glands)
Nervous tissue and sense organs
Pituitary gland 
Adrenal medulla
Enamel of teeth
Lens of the eye

Question 13

Describe the germ layer: Mesoderm.

What body parts are derived from the mesoderm?

Answer 13

Dermis of skin
Epithelial lining blood vessels, lymph vessels, serous membranes
Muscle tissue
Connective tissue
Adrenal cortex
Heart
Kidneys and ureters
Internal reproductive organs
Spleen

Question 14

Describe the germ layer: Endoderm.

What body parts are derived from the endoderm?

Answer 14

Epithelial lining of respiratory tract, GI tract, urinary tract, reproductive tract, tympanic cavity, auditory tube 
Lover
Gallbladder
Pancreas
Palatine tonsils
Thyroid gland
Parathyroid glands
Thymus

Question 15

Define tissue.

Answer 15

Group of similar cells and extracellular products that carry out a common function.

Question 16

Define an organ.

Answer 16

Two or more tissue types that work together to perform specific complex functions.

Question 17

Define an organ system.

Answer 17

Related organs that work together to coordinate activities and achieve a common function.

Question 18

Discuss endocrine glands and what they secrete.

Answer 18

Secrete directly into the blood stream. (No Ducts)

Secrete: hormones

Question 19

List the functions of the integumentary system.

Answer 19

Functions:
Protection
Prevention of water loss
Temp Regulation
Metabolic Regulation
Immune Defense
Sensory Reception
Excretion/Secretion

Question 20

What it the cause of goose bumps?

Answer 20

Pg. 131 - Upon stimulation, the arrector pili muscles (in the skin) contract, pulling on the hair follicles and elevating the hairs, to produce “goose bumps.”

• These muscles are usually stimulated in response to an emotional state, such as fear or rage, or exposure to old temps

Question 21

Give examples of the following: 
Long Bones
Irregular Bones
Short Bones
Flat Bones
Sesamoid Bones

Answer 21

Long Bone: Humerus, Femur, Phalanges

Irregular Bones: Vertebra, some skull bones, os coxae

Short Bones: Carparls, Tarsals

Flat Bones: Ribs, sternum, some skull bones, scapula

Sesamoid Bones: Patella

Question 22

Define osteoprogenitor cells.

Answer 22

• come from mesenchyme
• divide into 2:
  1 stays an osteoprogenitor
  the other becomes an osteoblast

(Precursor to bone cells)

Question 23

Define osteoclasts.

Answer 23

• breaks down bone

by secreting hydrochloric acid and enzymes

Question 24

Define osteocytes.

Answer 24

• a mature osteoblast is called an osteocyte

- maintains the bone matrix

Question 25

Be able to label these items on the diagram on Pg. 155

Answer 25

1. External circumferential lamellae 2. Osteon 3. Central Canal 4. Interstitial lamellae 5. Perforating Canal

Question 26

Be able to identify the bones of the axial skeleton.

Answer 26

Pg. 174 and 175 | Skull, Vertebral Column, and Thoracic Cage

Question 27

What type of vertebra have transverse foramen?

Answer 27

Cervical vertebra

Question 28

Discuss floating ribs.

Answer 28

- Floating ribs have no connection to the sternum at all. - They only articulate with the vertebra. - Ribs 11 and 12.

Question 29

Identify the connection between the pectoral girdle and the axial skeleton.

Answer 29

The clavicle and scapula are the 2 bones of the pectoral girdle and their function is to attach the upper limb to the axial skeleton.

Question 30

Discuss synovial joints. List the parts of a synovial joint. Be able to identify these structures on the diagram. Diagram Pg. 257

Answer 30

- Classified as diarthrosis (freely movable) - Most common type of joint in the body - Bones are separated by a space called a "joint cavity" ``` Examples: Glenohumoral joint (shoulder joint) Tempomandibular joint (TMJ) ``` Parts of a synovial joint 1. Articular capsule 2. Joint Cavity 3. Synovial fluid 4. Articular cartilages 5. Ligaments 6. Nerves 7. Blood vessels

Question 31

``` Define the following movements: Abduction Adduction Flexion Extension Inversion Eversion Protraction Retraction Circumduction Pronation Supination Radial and Ulnar deviation Rotation Depression Elevation ```

Answer 31

Abduction: lateral movement of a body part AWAY from the midline Adduction: medial movement of a body part TOWARD the midline Flexion: movement that DECREASES the angle between the articulating bones Extension: movement that INCREASES the angle between the articulating bones; (movement beyond 180 degrees is "hyperextension") Inversion: ankle movement; sole of the foot turns medially Eversion: ankle movement; sole of the foot turns laterally Plantar Flexion: ankle movement; extension of the foot so that the toes point inferiorly (toes point towards PLANTS on the ground) Dorsiflexion: ankle movement; anterior surface of the foot and the toes move toward the leg (toes to your nose) Protraction: anterior movement of the body part from anatomical position Retraction: posterior movement of the body part from anatomical position Circumduction: sequence of movements in which the proximal end of an appendage remains relatively stationary while the distal end makes a circular motion Pronation: medial rotation of the forearm so that the park of the hand is directed posteriorly or inferiorly (radius and ulna are crossed like an X) Supination: forearm rotates laterally so that the palm faces anteriorly or superiorly (radius and ulna are parallel) Radial/Ulnar Deviation: adduction and abduction of the wrist Rotation: pivoting motion in which a bone turns on its own longitudinal axis (medial/lateral rotation, internal/external rotation) Depression: inferior movement of a body part Elevation: superior movement of a body part

Question 32

Deltoid ligament, lateral ligaments, and tibiofibular ligaments belong to which joint?

Answer 32

The ankle

Question 33

List the functions of skeletal muscles. (5)

Answer 33

1. Movement 2. Maintain posture 3. Temp regulation (ie shivering) 4. Storage and movement of materials 5. Support

Question 34

Define ligament.

Answer 34

Dense, regular, fibrous connective tissue that attaches bone to bone.

Question 35

Define fascia.

Answer 35

Sheath of dense connective tissue that envelopes the body beneath the skin, encloses muscles, and separates their various layers or groups

Question 36

Define tendon.

Answer 36

Dense regular connective tissue that attaches muscle to: bone, skin, or another muscle; thick cordlike structure

Question 37

Describe the components of a sarcomere. Be able to label them on a diagram. ``` Z disc I band A band H zone M line Thick and thin filaments ``` Diagram Pg. 295 - 296

Answer 37

Z disc - dark proteins in center of I band where thin filaments attach I bands - light band containing thin filaments only and connectin proteins A band - dark band in middle of sarcomere; entire thick filament us located here; part of thin filaments overlaps H zone - lighter region in middle of A band containing thick filaments only M line - dark protein disc in center of H zone Thick filaments - myosin (protein) Thin filaments - actin (protein)

Question 38

What does a motor until consist of?

Answer 38

A motor unit is composed of a - single motor neuron - the muscle fibers it controls - the neuromuscular junctions between them

Question 39

Profundus means

Answer 39

Deep

Question 40

Name the hamstring muscles. (3)

Answer 40

Biceps femoris Semitendonosus Semimembranosis

Question 41

Difficulty dorsiflexing the ankle can be caused by

Answer 41

Weakness of the tibialis anterior

Question 42

List the muscles that adduct the arm. (4)

Answer 42

1. Pectoralis Major 2. Latissimus Dorsi 3. Teres Major 4. Coracobrachialis

Question 43

List the 4 muscles of the rotator cuff with their origins, insertions, and actions)

Answer 43

1. Supraspinatus O: Supraspinous Fossa (Scapula) I: Greater Tubercle (Humerus) A: Shoulder Abduction 2. Infraspinatus O: Infraspinous Fossa (Scapula) I: Greater Tubercle (Humerus) A: Shoulder External Rotation, Horizontal Abduction 3. Teres minor O: Lateral border (Scapula) I: Greater Tubercle (Humerus) A: Shoulder External Rotation, Horizontal Abduction 4. Subscpularis O: Subscapular Fossa (Scapula) I: Lesser Tubercle (Humerus) A: Shoulder lnternal Rotation

Question 44

List the actions of these muscles: Internal intercostals External intercostals Diaphragm

Answer 44

Internal intercostals - Depress ribs (during exhalation) External intercostals - Elevate ribs (during inhalation) Diaphragm - Inspiration

Question 45

What is the vertebral prominens?

Answer 45

C7 is the vertebral prominent. The spinous process of C7 is not bifurcated like the rest of the cervical vertebra. It's longer and larger that the spinous processes of the other cervical vertebra (it starts to show characteristics of the thoracic vertebra and is the transition point from cervical to thoracic vertebra). This vertebra can be seen and easily palpated through the skin.

Question 46

The peripheral nervous system includes:

Answer 46

- Cranial Nerves (nerves extending from brain) - Spinal Nerves (nerves extending from spinal cord) - Ganglia (clusters of neuron cell bodies located outside CNS)

Question 47

List the (3) general functions of the nervous system.

Answer 47

1. Collecting Info - structures int he PNS detect changes in internal and external environment and pass the info to the CNS 2. Processing and Evaluating info - CNS determines what response is required, if any 3. Responding to Information - CNS initiates impulses to react to environment

Question 48

What portion of the nervous system has voluntary control over skeletal muscles?

Answer 48

``` Motor Division (efferent) - transmits motor impulses FROM the CNS to muscles or glands (output) ```

Question 49

Which glial cells myelinate and insulate axons with the peripheral nervous system?

Answer 49

Neurolemmocytes (Schwann Cells)

Question 50

Which glial cells help form the blood-brain barrier?

Answer 50

Astrocytes

Question 51

What is the function of the neurofibril nodes?

Answer 51

Increase the speed of the transmission of nerve impulses.

Question 52

List the meninges of the brain from superficial to deep.

Answer 52

Dura Mater Aracnoid Mater Pia Mater

Question 53

List the general functions of the hypothalamus.

Answer 53

- Control of autonomic nervous system and endocrine system - Control of emotional behavior, food & water intake - Regulate body temp and sleep-wake cycles (communicates with pineal glad for sleep-wake cycles)

Question 54

What is the function of the pons?

Answer 54

- Rate and depth of breathing

Question 55

What is the function of the medulla oblongata?

Answer 55

- Breathing center, HR, BP | - All info from periphery passes through here

Question 56

What is the function of the cerebellum?

Answer 56

- Coordinates and fine-tunes skeletal muscle movements - Stores memories of previously learned movement patterns - Receives proprioception info and uses it to regulate body position (maintain balance, equilibrium, posture by adjusting skeletal muscle activity) - Monitors position of joints and muscle tone

Question 57

List the lobes of the brain and their functions.

Answer 57

1. Frontal Lobe - voluntary control of motor activity - personality center - cognition, attention, motivation - emotion, judgement, conscience - broca's area: motor control of speech 2. Parietal Lobe - Sensory lobe; perception and meaning - Spatial awareness - Taste perception - Speech comprehension (Wernicke's) 3. Temporal Lobe - Hearing, interpretation of speech and smell - Learning - Comprehension of language (Wernicke's) 4. Occipital Lobe - Primary visual cortex - Visual memory 5. Insular Lobe - Memory - Interpreting taste

Question 58

Define dermatome.

Answer 58

A specific segment of skin supplied by a single spinal nerve. - The skin of the body is may be divided into sensory segments that collectively make up a "dermatome map" (Pg. 493)

Question 59

Define ganglion.

Answer 59

Group of nerve cell bodies in the PNS.

Question 60

Define plexus.

Answer 60

Nerve plexus: network of interweaving anterior rami of spinal nerves; occurs on both sides of the body

Question 61

Damage of what nerve causes loss of the ability to flex the humerus and forearm?

Answer 61

Musculocutaneous Nerve

Question 62

An ascending pathway carries:

Answer 62

Sensory information.

Question 63

A descending pathway carries:

Answer 63

Motor information/impulse.

Question 64

Where does the cell body of the PRIMARY sensory neuron within a spinal nerve reside?

Answer 64

Cell bodies of the sensory axons are in the posterior root ganglion

Question 65

List the characteristics of the sympathetic division of the ANS.

Answer 65

- "Fight-or-flight" Division, "Thoracolumbar" Division - Mass activation; large # of ganglionic neurons activate many effector organs - Primarily concerned with preparing body for emergency - Increased alertness and metabolic activity; fear - Also helps regulate homeostasis - Preganglionic axon: Short - Postganglionic axon: Long - Preganglionic neuron cell bodies originate in lateral horns of T1-L2 - More complex

Question 66

What is the neurotransmitter released by the preganglionic axons?

Answer 66

ALL preganglionic axons release ACh as their neurotransmitter

Question 67

What is the function of proprioceptors?

Answer 67

to sense position or state of contraction

Question 68

Define pericardium.

Answer 68

Outermost lining of the heart

Question 69

Define myocardium.

Answer 69

Middle layer of the heart wall; consisting of cardiac muscle.

Question 70

Define endocardium.

Answer 70

Innermost lining of the heart wall.

Question 71

Define dentin.

Answer 71

primary mass of a tooth

Question 72

Define pulp.

Answer 72

connective tissue found in the pulp cavity (center of the tooth)

Question 73

Define enamel.

Answer 73

hard substance covering the exposed portion of the tooth

Question 74

List the layers of the wall of the jejunum.

Answer 74

``` Outermost to Innermost: Serosa Muscularis Submucosa Mucosa ```

Question 75

List the primary function of the large intestine

Answer 75

* 1. Absorb most of the water and electrolytes from digested material * 2. Store feces until body is ready to defecate 3. Absorbs small amount of nutrients remaining in digested material

Question 76

List the organs of the GI tract.

Answer 76

GI Tract (what makes up the tube) 1. Oral cavity 2. Pharynx 3. Esophagus 4. Stomach 5. Small intestine 6. Large intestine

Question 77

Where are the renal pyramids located?

Answer 77

Inside the kidney; The wide base of the renal pyramid lies at the external edge of the medulla where the cortex and medulla meet. The apex of the renal pyramid projects toward the renal sinus

Question 78

The muscularis layer of the urinary bladder is commonly called:

Answer 78

Detrusor muscle

Question 79

List the portions of the male urethra in the correct order from urinary bladder to the exterior.

Answer 79

Urinary bladder to... 1. Prostatic Urethra 2. Membranous Urethra 3. Spongy Urethra External urethral orifice

Question 80

List the function and structure of the gonads.

Answer 80

Gonads: Ovaries in females; produce oocytes Testes in males; produce semen They produce large amounts of sex hormones Females: Estrogen and progesterone Males: Androgens

Question 81

Discuss the phases of the ovarian cycle.

Answer 81

1. Follicular phase - Days 1-13 of the 28 day cycle 2. Ovulation phase - Occurs on day 14 of the 28 day cycle - the release of one secondary oocyte 3. Luteal phase - Occurs days 15-28 of the 28 day cycle - Remaining follicle cell turns into corpus luteum - Progesterone and estrogen secreted which stabilize build up of uterine lining and prepare for possible implantation if implantation does not occur, uterine lining is shed as menstration

Question 82

Discuss the phases of the uterine cycle.

Answer 82

1. Menstral Phase - Days 1-5 of the cycle - Sloughing of of he functional layer 2. Proliferative Phase - 6-14 days initial development of the functional layer of endometrium 3. Secretory Phase - Days 15-28 - Increased progesterone secretion causes increased vascularization and development of uterine glands if fertilization does not occur, progesterone levels decrease and the functional layer lining sloughs off and the next menstrual phase begins

Question 83

What happens when the testes are exposed to cold.

Answer 83

- The cremaster muscle contracts to bring the testes closer to the body. - The dartos muscle contracts causing the skin of the scrotal sac to thicken.

Question 84

Where is the normal site of fertilization?

Answer 84

In the uterine tubes (fallopian tubes/oviducts)

Question 85

Discuss the phases of meiosis and oocyte production.

Answer 85

Before birth: oogonia; they are arrested in prophase I and are called primary oocytes, they remain this way until puberty Oogenesis is the maturation of a primary oocyte to a secondary oocyte and this occurs during ovarian cycle.

Question 86

List the order in which sperm passes through structures of the male reproductive tract from the testes to the penis.

Answer 86

Testes to... 1. Epidymis 2. Ductus deferens 3. Ejaculatory duct 4. Urethra

Question 87

Define seminal vesicle.

Answer 87

- elongated, pouch-like hollow organ merges with the ductus deferens to form the ejaculatory duct. - secrete a viscous, whitish-yellow alkaline fluid that nourishes the sperm as they travel through the female reproductive tract; it also promotes widening and dilating of the cervix

Question 88

Define bulbourethral.

Answer 88

(Cowper's gland) - Located on each side of the membranous urethra - Has a short duct that projects into the base of the penis and enters the spongy urethra - Secretes clear, viscous mucin that protects the urethra and serves as a lubricant during sexual intercourse

Question 89

Define prostate.

Answer 89

- Walnut shaped gland - Secretes milky fluid that has a nutrient for sperm health, antibiotic to combat UTI, and an enzyme to liquefy semen following ejaculation

Question 90

Define urethral orifice.

Answer 90

Opening of the urethra where urine exits the body in males and females. (Also where sperm exits in males.)

Question 91

List the hormones that can affect blood pressure by increasing water retention in the kidney.

Answer 91

1. Aldosterone | 2. Antidiuretic hormone

Question 92

List in order the major structures through which urine must pass to be excreted from the body. Start at the kidney as it exits.

Answer 92

Kidney to... 1. Renal pelvis/hilum of kidney 2. Ureter 3. Bladder 4. Internal urethral sphincter 5. Urethra 6. External urethral sphincter 7. External urethral orifice Exits body

Question 93

List two muscles which make it possible for us to control expulsion of solid digested matter.

Answer 93

Pelvic floor muscles: 1. Levator ani muscle 2. Puborectalis muscle

Question 94

List the 3 types of muscle tissue and describe their structure.

Answer 94

1. Skeletal Muscle - striated - voluntary - multinucleated i. e. muscles like biceps, quadriceps, etc 2. Smooth Muscle - NOT striated - involuntary - only 1 nucleus - fibers are short, fusiform shape - takes longer to contract and relax than skeletal muscle i. e. muscles in the digestive tract/intestines 3. Cardiac Muscle - striated - involuntary - typically 1-2 nuclei - fibers shorter and thicker than skeletal muscle and form Y-shaped branches - contain intercalated discs - autorythmic i. e. the heart wall

Question 95

Describe the form and function of skin.

Answer 95

Functions of skin: 1. Protection 2. Prevention of water loss 3. Temp Regulation 4. Metabolic Regulation 5. Immune Defense 6. Sensory Reception 7. Excretion/Secretion Skin has 3 layers: 1. Epidermis 2. Dermis 3. Hypodermis