Animal Structure & Function Unit Test Review

Question 1

1. Define what a nutrient is.

Answer 1

Edible chemicals that are broken down for the body’s growth, maintenance and energy.

Question 2

2. Describe the chemical reactions by which nutrients are broken down.

Answer 2

nutrients are broken down through hydrolysis reactions, where enzymes add water to break bonds in macromolecules, converting them into smaller units

(ex. proteins -> amino acids, starch -> glucose, fatty acids/glycerol -> fatty acids & glycerol)

Question 3

3. Describe the physical/chemical characteristics of the nutrients and their importance and function.

Answer 3

Carbohydrates – Sugars and starches; provide energy.

Proteins – Made of amino acids; preform cellular functions, help build muscle and repair cell membranes

Lipids – Provide energy, aids absorption of vitamins, insulation/protection of organs

Vitamins & Minerals – enable chemical reactions and aid in tissue development, growth, and immunity, health/ function of body

nucleic acids - direct cell growth and development of all organisms using a chemical code

Question 4

4. Describe how to test for nutrients in food samples and the results of each test.

Answer 4

-Benedict’s test (glucose) – Turns orange-red if glucose is present.

-Iodine test (starch) – Turns blue-black with starch.

-Biuret test (protein) – Turns violet if proteins are present.

-Sudan IV test (lipids) – Lipid presence indicated by red-stained oil droplets.

Question 5

5. List the four steps of digestion and what is happening in each step.

Answer 5

1. Ingestion – Taking in food.
2. Digestion – Mechanical and chemical breakdown of food so its small enough for cell to absorb
3. Absorption – transport of the products of digestion from the digestive system into the circulatory system, which distributes them to the rest of the body
4. Egestion (elimination): the removal of undigested waste matter from the body

Question 6

6. State where physical and chemical digestion occurs.

Answer 6

Physical digestion – Mouth (chewing), stomach (churning).

Chemical digestion – Mouth (amylase), stomach (pepsin), small intestine (enzymes from pancreas and bile from liver/gallbladder).

Question 7

7. Contrast and compare the structure and function of teeth.

Answer 7

Canine teeth specialized for tearing (sharp)

Premolars – broad flattened teeth specialized for
grinding (middle)

Molars – crush food (back)

Question 8

8. Explain how chyme is neutralized and what organs and chemicals are involved.

Answer 8

acidic chyme enters small intestine, pancreatic fluid is released into duodenum containing bicarbonate which makes it basic and a variety of enzymes

Question 9

9. Describe the role of enzymes and what factors may impact the way they work. Can I give examples?

Answer 9

Enzymes speed up chemical reactions in digestion. Factors affecting them include pH, and temperature

Example: pepsin breaks down proteins in the stomach, so it works best at a acidic pH and body temperature

Question 10

10. Identify the role of various enzymes, from what organ are they secreted and “where” they function.

Answer 10

Amylase (salivary glands, pancreas) – Mouth, small intestine; breaks starch into sugars.

Pepsin (stomach) – Breaks down proteins.

Lipase (pancreas) – Small intestine; breaks down fats.

Trypsin (pancreas) – Small intestine; further digests proteins.

Question 11

11. Describe the role of the gallbladder and bile, what disorders can occur with the gallbladder, and what would be the consequences of its removal?

Answer 11

-Gallbladder: acts as a storage tank for bile.

-bile: emulsify fats for digestion in small intestine

-disorders: Gallstones are mineral deposits collected in this sack and can block the duct causing pain. Can be removed but diet needs to change to include less fat. (digestive/bowel issues, lifestyle changes)

Question 12

12. Describe, in detail, how absorption occurs in the small intestine.

Answer 12

Villi and microvilli increase surface area for absorption.

Duodenum: Gets enzymes and bile to start digestion.

Jejunum: Absorbs most nutrients (sugars, amino acids).

Ileum: Absorbs remaining nutrients, vitamin B12, and bile salts.

Nutrients enter blood (water-soluble) or lymph (fats).

-Sugars go into the blood, to the liver, and are turned into glucose for energy or stored as glycogen.

-Proteins become amino acids, go to the liver, and are used for energy, making proteins, or turned into waste (urea).

-Fats break into glycerol and fatty acids, get reassembled, enter the blood, and are used for energy.

Question 13

13. Describe all the digestion disorders discussed in class and in the textbook. Causes, signs & symptoms, treatments. c. difficile, diabetes, cirrhosis of liver, hepatitis, gallstones, constipation, ibd, ulcers, acid reflux

Answer 13

Digestion Disorders (Short Summary):

1. C. difficile (Clostridium difficile)
   • Cause: Bacterial infection, often after antibiotics.
   • Symptoms: Diarrhea, fever, abdominal pain.
   • Treatment: Stop antibiotics, use specific antibiotics (e.g., vancomycin), probiotics.
2. Diabetes (Type 1 & 2)
   • Cause: Body can’t produce (Type 1) or use insulin (Type 2) properly.
   • Symptoms: High blood sugar, thirst, frequent urination, fatigue.
   • Treatment: Insulin (Type 1), lifestyle changes, medication (Type 2).
3. Cirrhosis of the Liver
   • Cause: Long-term liver damage (alcohol, hepatitis).
   • Symptoms: Fatigue, jaundice, swelling, easy bruising.
   • Treatment: Avoid alcohol, treat cause, liver transplant in severe cases.
4. Hepatitis
   • Cause: Viral infection (hepatitis A, B, C), alcohol, toxins.
   • Symptoms: Jaundice, nausea, fatigue, dark urine.
   • Treatment: Rest, antivirals (for B & C), vaccines (A & B).
5. Gallstones
   • Cause: Hardened cholesterol in gall bladder.
   • Symptoms: Upper right abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting.
   • Treatment: Low-fat diet, surgery (gallbladder removal).
6. Constipation
   • Cause: Low fiber, dehydration, inactivity.
   • Symptoms: Infrequent, hard stools, straining.
   • Treatment: More fiber/water, exercise, laxatives if needed.
7. IBD (Inflammatory Bowel Disease)
   • Includes: Crohn’s disease & ulcerative colitis.
   • Cause: Immune system attacks gut.
   • Symptoms: Diarrhea, cramps, weight loss, fatigue.
   • Treatment: Anti-inflammatory drugs, diet changes, surgery.
8. Ulcers
   • Cause: H. pylori bacteria, NSAIDs, stress.
   • Symptoms: Burning stomach pain, nausea.
   • Treatment: Antibiotics, acid reducers, avoiding irritants.
9. Acid Reflux (GERD)
   • Cause: Weak lower esophageal sphincter.
   • Symptoms: Heartburn, regurgitation, sore throat.
   • Treatment: Antacids, diet changes, medications (PPIs).

Question 14

14. Explain how the digestive systems of different mammals may differ and why.

Answer 14

Herbivores (e.g., cows) have complex stomachs or long intestines to digest cellulose.

Carnivores have shorter intestines and strong stomach acids for meat digestion.

Omnivores (like humans) have medium-long digestive tracts for mixed diets

Question 15

15. Name and describe the structure and function of the respiratory system organs.

Answer 15

Nasal cavity: Filters, warms, moistens air.

Pharynx: Passageway for air and food.

Larynx: Voice box; produces sound.

Trachea: Windpipe; supported by cartilage rings.

Bronchi & bronchioles: Carry air to lungs.

Lungs: Site of gas exchange.

alveoli: Tiny sacs where oxygen enters blood, CO₂ exits.

Question 16

16. Describe, in detail, how inhalation and exhalation occur, including the function of diaphragm and intercostal muscles.

Answer 16

Inhalation: Diaphragm contracts (moves down), intercostal muscles lift ribs up/out → lung volume increases, air pressure drops, air flows in.

Exhalation: Diaphragm relaxes (moves up), ribs drop → lung volume decreases, air pressure increases, air pushed out.

Question 17

17. Explain what the measurements that you can obtain from a spirograph represent. tidal volume, inspiratory reserve, expiratory reserve, vital capacity, residual volume

Answer 17

Tidal volume: Normal breath.

Inspiratory reserve: Extra air inhaled after normal inhalation.

Expiratory reserve: Extra air exhaled after normal exhalation.

Vital capacity: Max air exhaled after max inhalation.

Residual volume: Air remaining in lungs after exhaling fully.

Question 18

18. Explain the characteristics of the nasal passage that allow it to optimize the air for breathing.

Answer 18

Cilia & mucus trap dust and pathogens. (filter)

Blood vessels warm the air.

Moist lining humidifies the air to prevent drying of respiratory surfaces.

Question 19

20. Describe all the respiratory disorders discussed in class and in the textbook. Causes, signs & symptoms, treatments.

Answer 19

Bronchitis: Inflammation of bronchi; causes coughing, mucus. Treated with antibiotics or lifestyle changes.

Pneumonia: Fluid in alveoli; symptoms include cough, fever. Treated with antibiotics or antivirals.

Emphysema: Alveoli rupture; symptoms: shortness of breath. No cure—managed with oxygen therapy.

COPD: Long-term airflow obstruction; caused by smoking. Symptoms: coughing, wheezing.

Tuberculosis (TB): Bacterial infection; spreads by air. Treated with antibiotics.

Lung cancer: Tumors reduce gas exchange; major cause is smoking. Treated with surgery, chemo, radiation.

Question 20

21. Describe the structure and function of the heart and identify the parts of the heart.

Answer 20

Structure: 4 chambers – Right atrium, right ventricle, left atrium, left ventricle.

Function: Pumps blood throughout the body.

Right side: Pumps deoxygenated blood to the lungs (pulmonary circulation).

Left side: Pumps oxygenated blood to the body (systemic circulation).

Valves: Ensure one-way flow — atrioventricular (between atria and ventricles) and semilunar (between ventricles and arteries).

Question 21

22. Explain what a pulse represents and what it is measuring.

Answer 21

A pulse is the rhythmic expansion and contraction of an artery as blood moves through it. It measures heart rate and arterial pressure.

Question 22

23. List the components of blood, describe their structure and their function.

Answer 22

-plasma: Fluid part of blood with proteins, nutrients, gases, and wastes, helps maintain homeostasis.

-red blood cells: made in bone marrow from stem cells, concave on both side for more surface area, no nucleus, transport oxygen

-white blood cells: have a nucleus, destroy invading microbes (fight infections)

Question 23

24. Determine the lifespan of each component of blood.

Answer 23

RBCs: ~120 days

WBCs: Varies — hours to years, depending on type

Platelets: ~7–10 days

Plasma: Continuously replenished

Question 24

25. Describe the process in which a broken blood vessel is repaired? i.e., how a blood clot forms.

Answer 24

-broken blood vessel causes bruise
-platelets clump together to cover the whole
-net of fibrin covers platelets
-net and platelets make a blood clot like a plug to block hole

Question 25

26. Contrast and compare arteries and veins.

Answer 25

*Arteries*: Carry blood away from the heart, elastic walls, thick muscular walls, high pressure, no valves. *Veins*: Carry blood toward the heart, thinner walls, one way flow, lower pressure, contain valves.

Question 26

27. Explain why valves are important in veins.

Answer 26

Valves prevent backflow of blood and ensure one-way movement, especially important in limbs where blood moves against gravity (legs towards heart).

Question 27

28. Explain what blood pressure measures and why it is vital to monitor.

Answer 27

Blood pressure is the force of blood against blood vessel walls. Measured using a sphygmomanometer (blood pressure cuff) on the arm. *Why it's important:* -Indicates the health of the heart and arteries. -Helps detect conditions like hypertension, which can lead to heart disease or stroke.

Question 28

29. Indicate what systolic and diastolic readings mean and what are the normal ranges.

Answer 28

Systolic: Pressure during heart contraction (top number) – normal ~120 mmHg Diastolic: Pressure during relaxation (bottom number) – normal ~80 mmHg

Question 29

30. Explain how the body maintains homeostasis when exercising.

Answer 29

Increased heart rate: Delivers more oxygen to muscles. Vasodilation: Blood vessels widen to increase blood flow. Sweating: Regulates body temperature. Increased breathing rate: More oxygen in, more CO₂ out.

Question 30

31. Describe what tachycardia, bradycardia, and arrhythmia are.

Answer 30

*Tachycardia:* An abnormally fast heart rate (above 100 beats per minute in adults). *Bradycardia:* An abnormally slow heart rate (below 60 beats per minute in adults). *Arrhythmia:* An irregular heartbeat or abnormal rhythm, either too fast, too slow, or erratic.

Question 31

32. Analyze and interpret an ECG.

Answer 31

An ECG (electrocardiogram) measures the electrical activity of the heart: P-wave: Atria contract. atrial depolarization QRS complex: Ventricles contract. ventricular depolarization T-wave: Ventricles relax. ventricular repolarization. Interpretation: Look at the rhythm, heart rate, and abnormalities in the pattern to diagnose conditions like arrhythmias.

Question 32

33. Give at least 3 explanations as to why people would have to wait for an organ transplant.

Answer 32

Lack of available organs: Not enough donors or suitable matches. Compatibility issues: Blood type, tissue type, and size must match between donor and recipient. Urgency of the recipient’s condition: The recipient’s medical status and how long they’ve been on the waiting list.

Question 33

34. Contrast and compare xenografts, allografts, and autografts.

Answer 33

Autografts: Transplants from one’s own body (e.g., skin graft). Allografts: Transplants from another individual of the same species (e.g., kidney transplant). Xenografts: Transplants from a different species (e.g., pig heart valve in humans).

Question 34

35. Explain the drawbacks of allografts and xenotransplantation.

Answer 34

Allografts: Risk of organ rejection because the immune system may identify the organ as foreign. Xenotransplantation: Risk of immune rejection, disease transmission, and ethical concerns (using animals for transplants).

Question 35

36. Describe some of the bioethical/social issues associated with organ transplantation.

Answer 35

Organ trafficking: Illegal trade of organs, often involving exploitation of donors. Consent issues: Who should give consent, especially in cases of brain death or family disputes. Fair distribution: Deciding who gets an organ (age, urgency, waiting time, etc.). Religious beliefs: Some cultures may oppose organ donation due to spiritual or ethical reasons.

Question 36

37. Explain why blood doping can be dangerous.

Answer 36

Blood doping involves increasing the red blood cell count to improve athletic performance, but it’s dangerous because: -It can lead to blood clots due to thicker blood. -It increases the risk of stroke or heart attack. -Infections can occur if blood is improperly stored or transfused.

Question 37

38. Describe the cause, symptoms, and procedure(s) for the treatment of atherosclerosis.

Answer 37

Cause: Buildup of plaque (fat, cholesterol) inside artery walls, narrowing them and leading to decreased blood flow. Symptoms: Chest pain (angina), shortness of breath, fatigue, or no symptoms until severe blockage. Treatment: Lifestyle changes, medications (e.g., statins), surgery (e.g., angioplasty), or stents to open blocked arteries.

Question 38

39. Describe how nanotechnology can be a potential treatment for cancer.

Answer 38

Recent nanotechnology helps doctors find diseases like heart problems faster and more accurately. It uses tiny tools instead of big, expensive machines. These tools can spot small changes in cells and molecules. Nanotechnology also helps in treating cancer. It uses enzymes as biomarkers (signals) to send medicine only to cancer cells. This way, the healthy cells around the cancer are not harmed.

Question 39

40. Describe all the circulatory disorders discussed in class and in the textbook. Causes, signs & symptoms, treatments. hypertension, atherosclerosis, varicose veins, heart attack, stroke

Answer 39

Hypertension: High blood pressure; caused by poor diet, stress, genetics. Symptoms often silent, treated with medications and lifestyle changes. Atherosclerosis: Fat buildup in arteries; causes chest pain, fatigue. Treatment includes diet, exercise, medication, surgery. Varicose veins: Swollen, twisted veins; caused by weakened valves. Symptoms: leg pain, swelling. Treatment: compression stockings, sclerotherapy, surgery. Heart attack (Myocardial infarction): Blockage of heart arteries; chest pain, shortness of breath. Immediate treatment includes blood thinners, surgery (angioplasty). Stroke: Blockage or rupture of brain vessels; symptoms: sudden numbness, confusion. Treated with clot-dissolving drugs or surgery.

Question 40

41. Describe the importance of surface area in all three systems and give examples.

Answer 40

*Digestive System*: A large surface area in the small intestine (due to villi and microvilli) is crucial for efficient nutrient absorption. *Respiratory System*: In the alveoli, the large surface area allows for maximum gas exchange (oxygen and carbon dioxide) between the air and blood. *Circulatory System:* The capillaries have a large surface area relative to their volume, allowing for efficient nutrient, gas, and waste exchange between blood and tissues.

Question 41

42. Analyze the diagram of the digestive system, the heart, blood vessels, alveolar sacs, and digestive system.

Answer 41

Digestive System: Involves the breakdown of food into smaller molecules, starting from the mouth, down to the esophagus, stomach, small intestine (where absorption happens), and finally, waste removal via the large intestine. Heart: Pumps blood through the circulatory system, providing oxygen and nutrients to tissues. The heart has four chambers: two atria and two ventricles. Blood Vessels: Arteries carry oxygenated blood from the heart, veins carry deoxygenated blood back to the heart, and capillaries allow exchange of materials at the cellular level. Alveolar Sacs: Tiny sacs in the lungs where gas exchange occurs between air and blood. Oxygen moves into the blood, and carbon dioxide moves out to be exhaled.