1
Q
Origins of Psychology:
Outline Wilhelm Wundt’s work
A
- Believed that all aspects of behaviour could be studied scientifically
- ‘principles of physiological psychology’ (1873)
- institute of experimental psychology - first experiment
- created approach called ‘structuralism’ (early form of reductionism) and used introspection
2
Q
Origins of Psychology:
What is introspection
A
- reflecting on cognitive processes, feelings, sensations and thoughts
- zoning in on a metronome to ‘look into yourself’
- bunch of hippy shit - Keiran Shipperley 2024
- later known as meditation/mindfulness
3
Q
Origins of Psychology:
What is empiricism
A
- all knowledge and abilities come from observation and experience alone, rather than being innate
- all behaviour has causes, and is therefore predictable
4
Q
Origins of Psychology:
what is the hypothetico-deductive model
A
empirical observations
theory formulation
hypotheses generation
hypotheses testing
repeat
5
Q
Biological Approach:
what are the assumptions made by the biological approach
A
- all behaviour is driven by physical or physiological factors
- behaviour is caused by genetic biological or neurochemical factors
- emphasises our nature (internal forces) in shaping behaviour
- most scientific approach
6
Q
Biological Approach - Evolution and Behaviour:
define evolution
A
the gradual change within a species over several generations in response to environmental pressures
7
Q
Biological Approach - Evolution and Behaviour:
define natural selection
A
the survival of a species due to specific traits - often caused by random mutations
8
Q
Biological Approach - Evolution and Behaviour:
define adaptive
A
physical changes to a change in environment or other external stimuli - often mutation caused by the environment
9
Q
Biological Approach - Evolution and Behaviour:
define Seligman’s 1971 theory
A
there is a biological preparedness to phobias of certain things. this explains phobias of potentially threatening things such as heights, spiders, snakes etc
10
Q
Biological Approach - Genes and Behaviour:
define a genotype
A
genetic constitution of an individual - what genes make up our physical appearance
11
Q
Biological Approach - Genes and Behaviour:
define a phenotype
A
occurred behaviour as a direct result of environment stimuli activating genotypes
12
Q
Biological Approach - Genes and Behaviour:
define an interactionist approach
A
combination of how nature (biology) and nurture (environment) interact with each other when determining behaviour
13
Q
Biological Approach - Neuroanatomy:
Outline Raine et al’s study into neuroanatomy
A
- 1997
- used PET scans on murderers who pleaded not guilty for reasons of insanity (NGRI)
- found reduced activity in parietal lobe (abstract thinking)
- increased activity in occipital lobe (vision)
- reduced activity in corpus callosum
- imbalance between hemispheres
14
Q
Biological Approach - Neuroanatomy:
What is neuroanatomy
A
mapping the relationship between various ares of the brain and their functions
15
Q
Biological Approach - Neuroanatomy:
Give examples of neuroanatomy
A
Broca’s and Wernicke’s areas
16
Q
Biological Approach - neurochemistry and behaviour:
What is neurochemistry
A
all the chemical processes that take place specifically in the brain
17
Q
Biological Approach - neurochemistry and behaviour:
What is the role of GABA (gamma-amino butyric acid)
A
- amino acid - primary inhibitory neurotransmitter
- reduced likelihood of reactive response
- reduces brain activity
18
Q
Biological Approach - neurochemistry and behaviour:
What is the role of adrenaline
A
initiates fight or flight response
- released by the adrenal module
(see biopsychology)
19
Q
Biological Approach - neurochemistry and behaviour:
What is the role of serotonin
A
- ‘feel good’ hormone
- associated with depression, OCD and other mental health disorders
- long lasting hormone
20
Q
Give evaluations for the biological approach
A
- research support - Davis et al (1980) looked into the effectiveness of antipsychotic drugs. found relapse occurred 55% of the time when drugs replaced by placebo. 19% when left on medication
- a lot of research conducted on non-humans animals - Harlow and Lorenz
- extremely scientific
- social insensitivity - destined to be ill
- biologically reductionist
- ignorant to cognitive processes
21
Q
Learning Approach - introduction:
state the assumptions of the learning approach
A
- all behaviour is learned and we all have the capacity to learn from birth
- tabula rasa - born a blank slate
- extreme nurture side of the nature-nurture debate
- states in order for psychology to be scientific it must only measure observable behaviour - big fuck off to the infamous cocaine addict Freud
22
Q
Learning Approach - behaviourism classical conditioning:
Outline Pavlov’s research
A
- 1902
- through association, taught his togs to associate a bell with food
- initially, dogs only produced saliver when given food
- by end, they produced saliver when hearing bell ring
23
Q
Learning Approach - behaviourism classical conditioning:
outline the processes of classical conditioning
A
-before conditioning:
unconditioned stimulus (UCS) = unconditioned response (UCR)
- during conditioning:
neutral stimulus (NS) + unconditioned stimulus (UCS) = unconditioned response (UCR)
- after conditioning:
conditioned stimulus (CS) = conditioned response (CR)
24
Q
Learning Approach - behaviourism classical conditioning:
outline the term extinction in terms of classical conditioning
A
if the CS is continually presented without the UCS then the CR gradually dies out
25
Learning Approach - behaviourism classical conditioning:
outline the term spontaneous recovery in terms of classical conditioning
if a CR is not reinforced, it dies out. after a period of rest, the response may suddenly reappear
26
Learning Approach - behaviourism classical conditioning:
outline the term discrimination in terms of classical conditioning
ability to respond differently to similar but different stimuli
(opposite of generalisation)
27
Learning Approach - behaviourism classical conditioning:
outline the term generalisation in terms of classical conditioning
responding the same way to similar but different stimuli
generalising one response to to multiple stimuli which are similar
(opposite of discrimination)
think little albert projecting his phobia
28
Learning Approach - behaviourism classical conditioning:
outline the term one trial learning in terms of classical conditioning
when only one trial is required for the association to take place
conditioning occurs immediately
29
Learning Approach - behaviourism operant conditioning:
outline Skinner's research
- 1930
- electric floor
- two buttons, one for food, the other electrocuting the mice
- learnt through positive and negative reinforcement
- switched the buttons round - rats learnt new pattern
- made random or both electric - rats experienced learned helplessness (starved to death rather than risking electrocution)
30
Learning Approach - behaviourism operant conditioning:
outline primary reinforcers
an individuals natural response to a stimuli
31
Learning Approach - behaviourism operant conditioning:
outline secondary reinforcers
response to stimuli which is learned/conditioned
32
Learning Approach - behaviourism operant conditioning:
outline continuous reinforcement
behaviour reinforced all of the time
33
Learning Approach - behaviourism operant conditioning:
outline partial reinforcement
only reinforced part of the time
34
Learning Approach - behaviourism operant conditioning:
outline positive reinforcement
increasing the frequency of a desired behaviour by giving a pleasant consequence
35
Learning Approach - behaviourism operant conditioning:
outline negative reinforcement
increasing the frequency of a desired behaviour by removing something unpleasant
36
Learning Approach - behaviourism operant conditioning:
outline positive punishment
reducing the frequency of an undesired behaviour by giving something unpleasant
37
Learning Approach - behaviourism operant conditioning:
outline negative punishment
reducing the frequency of an undesired behaviour by taking something pleasant away
38
Give evaluations for the learning approach behaviourism
- research support - Skinner and Pavlov
- practical applications - school
- environmentally reductionist - doesn't take into account biological or cognitive processes
- deterministic - no free will, you are the result of reward and punishment
39
Learning Approach - social learning theory:
outline the social learning theory (SLT)
still using the concepts of behaviourism, but further suggests that we can learn by imitation of others in social settings
40
Learning Approach - social learning theory:
outline imitation in terms of the SLT
mimicking the behaviour of a role model but not the attitudes or beliefs
shallow and superficial form (temporary)
41
Learning Approach - social learning theory:
outline identification in terms of the SLT
mimicking the behaviour, attitudes and beliefs of role models
shallow and superficial form (temporary)
42
Learning Approach - social learning theory:
outline modelling in terms of the SLT
observing the behaviour of role models to understand how to behave in certain situations
43
Learning Approach - social learning theory:
outline vicarious punishment in terms of the SLT
observing someone being punished for behaving in a certain way and then not behaving in the same manner
44
Learning Approach - social learning theory:
outline the mediational processes in social learning theory and their definitions
- Attention - paying attention to the behaviour in order to copy it
- Retention - strong memory of the behaviour from the attention phase
- Reproduction - physically replicating the behaviour
- Motivation - wanting to replicate the behaviour
the more of these met to a greater extent, the better the replication of the behaviour
45
Learning Approach - social learning theory:
outline bandura's research (named)
- Aim - can aggression be taught. would kids be more likely to imitate same-gender models
- Sample - 36 boys, 36 girls from 37-69 months old. mean age 4 years
- Procedure - 72 kids in three groups. 24 with aggressive model. 24 with non-aggressive model. 24 with no model (control group). control group had 12 boys and 12 girls. the other two groups were split between male or female model, with 12 in each sub-group. 6 boys, 6 girls.
- activities - model would enter room and participate in certain tasks, either sit at a desk and play with toys or beat the living shit out of a blow out doll in front of the kids
- results - nearly 90% of the kids in the aggressive group also beat the shit out of the doll, with 40% of them exhibiting the same behaviour after 8 months
46
Give evaluations for Bandura's 1961 study
- standardised
- practical apps - parenting
- ethically questionable - taught kids aggressive behaviour
47
Give evaluations for the learning approach social learning theory
- practical applications
- research support
- deterministic - neglects possible biological and cognitive processes
48
Cognitive Approach - introduction:
outline the assumptions of the cognitive approach
- assumes all behaviour is driven by internal mental processes (cognitive primacy)
- focusses on cognitive processes
- assumes we process information in a linear systematic way and can therefore use the computer analogy
- assumes psychology can be scientifically researched and observed
49
Cognitive Approach - theoretical and computer models to explain mental processes:
outline the information processing model
input --> processes <--> output
e.g. multistore model of memory
50
Cognitive Approach - theoretical and computer models to explain mental processes:
outline the computer analogy
views the brain as computers so that hardware is the physical aspect (brain) and the soft ware is the cognitive processes.
whilst everyone's 'hardware' is the same, 'software' varies from person to person
51
Cognitive Approach - role of schemas:
define a schema
a mental/cognitive structure which contains knowledge about an object, person, activity, or roles based on experience. these beliefs and expectations help us make sense of the world
52
Cognitive Approach - role of schemas:
outline the advantages of schemas
- they help identify danger
- tell us how to behave in unique or unfamiliar scenarios
53
Cognitive Approach - role of schemas:
outline the disadvantages of schemas
- may result in you behaving inappropriately to the situation
- made from your experiences - you may have shit experiences
54
Cognitive Approach - emergence of cognitive neuroscience:
outline the purpose of cognitive neuroscience
aims to explore the neuroanatomy, chemical and/or mechanisms that cause our cognitive processes
this is done using brain scans
(see biopsychology)
55
Give evaluations of the cognitive approach
- research support for cognitive factors in behaviour - loftus and palmer
- cognitive processes cannot be observes - not scientific
- practical applications - cognitive behavioural therapy
- cognitive mechanical reductionism
- purely inferential - not scientific
56
Psycho pee pee Approach - introduction:
outline the assumptions of the psycho pee pee approach
- behaviour can be motivated by unconscious motives and event that occurred in early childhood
- dreams have meanings
57
Psycho pee pee Approach - role of the unconscious mind:
outline the various consciouses and each purpose
- conscious mind consists of thoughts we are aware of. including perceptions and everyday thoughts.
- preconscious mind includes memories and stored knowledge which whilst we don't always have access to it, we can gain access to it at any time and pull information from the preconscious mind into the conscious mind
- unconscious includes information that is either really hard or impossible to retrieve. this includes our fears, instincts, distressing, painful or embarrassing material and traumatic past experiences
58
Psycho pee pee Approach - structure of personality:
outline the three aspects of the personality and each definition
- id - urges and impulses (instinct). also includes libido (generalised sexual energy used for everything sexual and otherwise). pleasure principle
- ego - acts as a bridge between the id and superego. e.g. accepting i can't kill the cunt on the bus because i'll go to prison. reality principle
- superego - morality, social values and laws. elicits guilt when standards are not met (I guess mine must be broken then) opposite to the id
59
Psycho pee pee Approach - defence mechanisms:
outline displacement in terms of defence mechanisms for psycho pee pee
redirection of an impulse (usually aggression) onto a powerless substitute - could be person or object
- occurs when id wants to do something not permitted by the superego, results in ego redirecting
60
Psycho pee pee Approach - defence mechanisms:
outline repression in terms of defence mechanisms for psycho pee pee
employed by ego to keep disturbing or threatening thoughts from becoming conscious. ensures safety of conscious
also known as motivated forgetting
61
Psycho pee pee Approach - defence mechanisms:
outline denial in terms of defence mechanisms for psycho pee pee
refusal to accept reality. blocking external events from awareness
'ignorance is bliss'
62
Psycho pee pee Approach - defence mechanisms:
outline projection in terms of defence mechanisms for psycho pee pee
projecting your unwanted thoughts and feelings onto someone else
63
Psycho pee pee Approach - psychosexual stages of development:
state the five stages of psychosexual development
oral
anal
phallic
latency
genital
64
Psycho pee pee Approach - psychosexual stages of development:
outline the oral stage of psychosexual development
- age - 0-1 years
- pleasure source - mouth
- personality developed - oral desire/pleasure
- adult behaviour if unresolved - talkativeness
65
Psycho pee pee Approach - psychosexual stages of development:
outline the anal stage of psychosexual development
- 1-3 years
- pleasure source - anus
- personality developed - withholding and releasing shit
- adult behaviour if unresolved - anal obsession
66
Psycho pee pee Approach - psychosexual stages of development:
outline the phallic stage of psychosexual development
- 3-6 years
- pleasure source - genitals (not sexual)
- personality developed - beginning awareness of sexual desires
- adult behaviour if unresolved - unhealthy obsession with opposite gender parent
67
Psycho pee pee Approach - psychosexual stages of development:
outline the latency state of psychosexual development
- 6 years to puberty
- role - earlier conflicts are repressed/resolved
68
Psycho pee pee Approach - psychosexual stages of development:
outline the genital state of psychosexual development
- puberty onwards
- pleasure source - genitals (sexual)
- personality developed - complete sexual desires
- adult behaviour if unresolved - unhealthy sex life/sexual activity
69
Psycho pee pee Approach - phallic anxieties and gender development:
Outline the Oedipus complex
- only in boys
- at age 3 (during phallic stage) boys begin to desire their mother and want to kill their father out of jealousy and rivalry
70
Psycho pee pee Approach - phallic anxieties and gender development:
outline the Electra complex
- only in girls
- during phallic stage, girls desire their father for having a penis (penis envy) and hate their mother for not giving them a penis. girls then want to be a boy, until they grow out of it. and if they don't, they become gender dysphoric, not transgender
71
Psycho pee pee Approach - phallic anxieties and gender development:
outline the case study little Hans
- 5 year old with phobia of horses
- at age 3 Hans developed a liking towards his, other people's and animals dicks
- mother threatened to cut his off if he didn't stop playing with it (not sexually)
- Freud linked the phobia of horses to big cocks. black harness on horses represent father's moustache (suggestion from dad)
- linked to Oedipus complex as Hans feared his father
- Freud successfully treated Hans' phobia by having him imagine he had a big dick and married his mother
72
Give evaluations for the psycho pee pee approach
- over-reliant on case study support
- subjective inferences - not scientific
- practical applications - PTSD
- doesn't explain development into and throughout adulthood
73
Humanistic Approach - Introduction:
outline the assumptions made by the humanistic approach
- argues that people are born with free will and wish to grow and fulfil their potential (the need to self-actualise)
- people have an innate need to make themselves and the world better (innately good)
74
Humanistic Approach - free will, self-actualisation and Maslow's hierarchy of needs:
outline free will in terms of the humanistic approach
having the ability to control your actions and behaviour without disruption from outside factors
opposite of determinism
75
Humanistic Approach - free will, self-actualisation and Maslow's hierarchy of needs:
outline self-actualisation in terms of the humanistic approach
from birth, humans have an innate desire to reach their full potential based on their perceived self and their ideal self
if disconnected, they are incongruous
76
Humanistic Approach - free will, self-actualisation and Maslow's hierarchy of needs:
outline Maslow's hierarchy of needs in terms of the humanistic approach
set of criteria required to become congruent and fully self-actualise
self-actualisation - morality, creativity, spontaneity, problem solving, lack of prejudice, acceptance of facts
esteem - self-esteem, confidence, achievement, respect of others, respect by others
love/belonging - family, friends
safety - security of body, of employment, of resources, or morality, or family, of health, or property
physiological - breathing, food, water, homeostasis, sex
77
Give evaluations for free will, self-actualisation and Maslow's hierarchy of needs
- cultural bias - hierarchy is based on Maslow's culture. Not all cultures share the same goals or values
- practical applications
- cannot be measured - not scientific
78
Humanistic Approach - the self, congruence and the role of conditions of worth:
outline the three selves and each meaning
- ideal self - who you want to be
- actual self - who you actually are
- perceived self - who you think you are
79
Humanistic Approach - the self, congruence and the role of conditions of worth:
outline congruence in terms of the humanistic approach
the degree of similarity between the ideal self, actual self and perceived self
80
Humanistic Approach - the self, congruence and the role of conditions of worth:
outline conditions of worth in terms of the humanistic approach
personalised requirements an individual believes that they must have to bo loved
attempt to appeal to those they love
potential for unconditioned positive regard
81
Humanistic Approach - the influence of the humanistic approach on counselling psychology:
outline the therapy technique developed from the humanistic appraoch
- client centred therapy
- created to help individuals reach self-actualisation
- rather than the therapist exploring the individual, the client explores themselves with the assistance of the therapist
- aims at reducing the gap between someone's real, ideal and perceived selves
solution focused as opposed to problem focused (normal therapy)
82
Give evaluations for the humanistic approach
- practical applications - client centred therapy
- cannot be measured - not scientific
- non-scientific approach takes into account individual/subjective experiences
83
Give research support for the humanistic approach
Elliot (2002):
- meta-analysis of 86 studies
- humanistic therapies were shown to produce significant improvement to no therapy
Gibbard and Hanley (2008):
70% of participants showed significant improvement aft taking part in client-centred therapy - 5 year study
