1
Q
Define introspection
A
The first systematic and experimental attempt to study the mind by breaking down conscious awareness into basic structures of thoughts, reflections, images and sensations.
2
Q
How did Wundt study introspection?
A
Him and his workers recorded their own conscious thoughts and broke them down into parts, focusing on their present experiences. Individual says everything they’re thinking whilst doing something - can use fragmented sentences and don’t have to justify thoughts
3
Q
State three advantages of Wundt’s contribution to psychology
A
- It’s a useful phenomenon - helped developed other approaches (behaviourism, cognition)
- Able to establish what causes behaviour due to monitoring thought processes as it occurs
- Has some scientific qualities due to high control of variables. Only way at the time to make someone conscious of their thoughts scientifically
4
Q
State three disadvantages of Wundt;s contribution to psychology
A
- Fails to explain HOW the mind works. Can’t see how thoughts are generated or directly observe introspection
- Data is subjective and can’t be generalised to the whole population - not very reliable
- Criticised by Wilson as not scientific/accurate - provides little knowledge about unconscious thoughts/behaviour
5
Q
What is the focus of the behaviourist approach?
A
Proposed as a more controlled and objective explanation for the occurrence of behaviour (rejected introspection).
Focuses on behaviour being measured and observed - learnt, same in animals and humans
6
Q
Describe classical conditioning
A
A neutral stimulus repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus to produce a conditioned response to the now conditioned stimulus
7
Q
State and define the three principles of classical conditioning
A
Generalisation - similar stimuli to conditioned stimuli produce same response
Discrimination - only conditioned stimuli produce response
Extinction - conditioned response no longer produced
8
Q
State two advantages of classical conditioning
A
- Explains behaviour in animals and young children
2. Easily tested in a subjective and objective way - aids replication
9
Q
State four disadvantages of classical conditioning
A
- Doesn’t explain behaviour in adults
- Doesn’t consider free will of animals or humans
- Menzies found only 2% of people with hydrophobia had a bad experience, and 50% of those with fear of dogs had a bad experience
- Ignores other factors - biological in particular
10
Q
Describe operant conditioning
A
Focuses on learning behaviour due to consequences
11
Q
Define positive reinforcement
A
Rewarding a desirable behaviour to strengthen it
12
Q
Define negative reinforcement
A
Strengthening a behaviour due to the removal of a negative outcome
13
Q
Define positive punishment
A
Adding a negative consequence to deter from an undesirable behaviour
14
Q
Define negative punishment
A
Removing a desired item/privilege to deter from an undesirable behaviour
15
Q
State three advantages of operant conditioning
A
- Real-life application - token economy for prisoners, schizophrenic patients for behaviour modification
- Studies to support are highly controlled
- Supported by the nurture side of the nature-nurture debate - due to environmental factors
16
Q
State three disadvantages of operant conditioning
A
- Ignores concept of free will for future behaviour
- Skinner’s study had ethical issues, and can’t generalise animals to humans
- Doesn’t consider other approaches
17
Q
What is the focus of the social learning theory?
A
New behavioural patterns can be learnt through observing others and their consequences. Considers the impact of cognitive processes on carrying out the behaviour
18
Q
What are the main key points to Bandura’s 1977 Social Learning Theory
A
- Modelling
- Imitation - depends on perceived ability, age, observed consequences
- Identification - more likely to imitate if same sex model
- Vicarious Reinforcement
19
Q
What are the stages of meditational processes in Social Learning?
A
Forms mental representation of the behaviour
- Attention
- Retention
- Motor reproduction
- Motivation
20
Q
State three advantages of the Social Learning theory
A
- Provided understanding for learning criminal behaviour - Akers (1998) found criminals engage in more criminal behaviour when exposed to relatable models
- More comprehensive view of learning the behavioural approach - recognises cognition also
- Fox (2009) found if computer model was similar to observer they were more likely to engage in the same behaviour
21
Q
Describe Bandura’s 1961 Bobo Doll experiment
A
36 male and female children between 3-5yrs observed either an aggressive or non-aggressive female or male model with the doll, then were observed with the doll for 20mins. In aggressive condition, children were made to feel frustrated beforehand (saw, but couldn’t play with, toys) and 33% imitated model. 0% in non-aggressive condition displayed aggression.
22
Q
What were the findings of Bandura’s 1961 Bobo Doll experiment?
A
When model awarded for behaviour, imitation increased. Boys were more aggressive - imitation greatest when model of the same sex
23
Q
State two advantages of the Bobo Doll experiment
A
- Lab setting - high control
- Provides evidence for social learning theory being useful in reinforcing behaviour in children - highlights the importance of media exposure
24
Q
State three disadvantages of the Bobo Doll experiment
A
- Ethical issues - could’ve inflicted psychological or physical harm - taught to be more aggressive, could inflict harm on others
- Only investigates the short term effect of social learning
- Bobo doll itself encourages aggressive behaviour - designed to bounce back. Should’ve chosen another to
25
What is the focus of the cognitive approach?
Studies internal mental processes in regards to attention, memory and how information is perceived, manipulated and stored. Uses inferences to study processes
26
What are inferences?
Making assumptions about internal mental processes as they can't be studied directly
27
Describe the computer model of mental processing
The mind is equated to a computer in regards to having an input, processing, and output. Information is received through the senses, processed by the mind and is output through behaviour. Often used to explain memory
28
Describe the theoretical model of mental processing
Simplified representations based on current research. Often incomplete/updated regularly e.g. Working Memory Model
29
What is a schema? What are the two different types?
A cognitive framework developed through experience on what to expect in certain situations, and how to behave. Helps organise information (shortcut).
Role schema & Event schema
30
Define cognitive neuroscience
The scientific study of the influence of the brain structure on mental processes, using the mapping of brain areas to locate specific functions. Looks at the biological basis of thought processes and uses computer-generated models to mind-map and in brain fingerprinting
31
How have fMRI and PET scans contributed to psychology?
Helps psychologists understand how the brain supports different cognitive activities - certain areas become active
32
How does an fMRI scan work?
Locates where blood flows to in response to a certain activity/stimulus
33
How does a PET scan work?
Detects radiation given off from the tracker that's injected into the bloodstream - blood with tracker flows to active areas
34
State 4 advantages of the cognitive approach
1. Has many applications in different areas of psychology. Can help explain cognitive biases and faulty negative thinking - help understand abnormal psychology.
2. Approach is founded on the idea of soft determinism - more interactionist and not as deterministic as other approaches
3. Emphasises the use of scientific methods when collecting data - allows for identification of cause and effect, and for objectivity and reliability.
4. Big influence on development of cognitive neuroscience and therapies - CBT
35
State 4 disadvantages of the cognitive approach
1. Isn't a comprehensive view of processing - inferences could be based on limited information
2. Ignores other influencers
3. Use of theoretical and computer models can over-simplify the behaviour and mental processes - role of emotion is overlooked
4. Not accurate to compare humans to computers
36
What are the four sub-components of the Biological Approach?
Genetics, Evolution, Biological Structures and Neurochemistry
37
Outline the influence of genetics on behaviour
Involves the study of the genetic basis of all behaviour, particularly in regards to heritability and the difference between genotype and phenotype. Looks at the extent of genetics as a factor of behaviour. Research usually involves gene mapping and twin studies
38
Describe Gottesman and Shield's study
224 sets of twins (106 MZ, 118 DZ), studied over 25 years (one twin had schizophrenia), found 48% MZ concordance and 17% DZ concordance
39
Outline the influence of evolution on behaviour
Darwin theorised that some elements of variation are inherited - those who are more adaptive are more successful (survival of the fittest)
40
State three advantages of studying genetics as an influencer of behaviour
1. Gene mapping can help locate responsible genes on chromosomes - scientific, objective.
2. Supported by twin studies - helps determine concordance rates
3. Helps to support use of screening to identify individuals at risk - preventative measures
41
State three disadvantages of studying genetics as an influencer of behaviour
1. Could lead to ethical dilemmas
2. Ignores other approaches
3. Reductionist - reduces complexity of behaviour to simply biological (inaccurate)
42
State three advantages of studying evolution as an influencer of behaviour
1. Supported by the nature side of the nature-nurture debate
2. Approach supported by Darwin's natural selection theory - how certain traits become adaptive
3. Favourable to producing quality offspring - species compete for best mate to pass to offspring
43
State three disadvantages of studying evolution as an influencer of behaviour
1. Doesn't clearly explain why some behaviours are adpative - specific or just any?
2. Ignores other explanations of behaviour
3. Doesn't account for behaviour without the aim of reproduction e.g. homosexuals
44
Outline the influence of biological structures on behaviour
Studies the functions of different structures, and how behaviour could be due to damage to certain areas.
Brain split into 4 lobes (cerebrum) with cerebral cortex lining the cerebrum (higher thinking). Responses generated by impulses through nervous system and hormonal effects on brain areas
45
Outline the influence of neurochemistry on behaviour
Studies how chemical changes influence behaviour. Neurotransmitters communicate information throughout the brain and body - either stimulates or inhibits activity.
46
State three advantages of the study of biological structures
1. Relies on the use of scans - one of the most scientific models
2. Hormone levels can be scientifically measured to see the effect on behaviour e.g. cortisol in urine
3. Examining hormones can be beneficial in determining cures/treatments for disorders
47
State three disadvantages of the study of biological structures
1. More applicable for explaining certain behaviours, but not all e.g. useful for schizoprenia, but not phobias
2. Cause and effect isn't clear
3. Issue with studying the brain - scientists don't know 100% about the brain, more research needed for holistic overview
48
State two advantages of the study of neurochemistry
1. Measured objectively and scientifically e.g. dopamine through inserting needle into spine and extracting spinal fluid
2. Knowledge of relationship between neurotransmitter levels and the effect on behaviour helps determine appropriate treatments e.g. SSRIs
49
State three disadvantages of the study of neurochemistry
1. Cause and effect needs to be established
2. Reductionist
3. Doesn't consider other approaches
50
What is the focus of the psychodynamic approach?
Based on the belief that behaviour is determined by psychological factors. Separates the mind into three levels: Conscious, Pre-conscious and Unconscious. Focuses on most everyday behaviour being controlled unconsciously (Freudian slips)
51
What are the three elements of the personality (Tripartite)?
Id - operates on the pleasure principle, contains sexual and aggressive drives, present from birth
Ego - mediator between id and reality - operates on reality principle, present during first 3 years
Superego - divided into conscience and ego-ideal. Conscience - internalisation of societal rules, determines acceptable behaviour, causes guilt. Ego-ideal - what a person strives towards, determined by parental standards, present from 3-5
52
State and describe the main three defence mechanisms
Repression - unconscious blocking of unacceptable thoughts and impulses, still affect behaviour
Denial - refusal to accept reality to avoid dealing with trauma
Displacement - redirecting hostile thoughts/feelings to a victim/object
53
What are the 5 stages of personality as stated by Freud?
Oral (0-2yrs) - sexual energy focused on the mouth
Anal (2-3yrs) - learn to control excretion, ego develops
Phallic (3-6yrs) - sexual energy focused on genitals. Oedipus and Electra complex
Latent (6-12yrs) - repression of conflicts from earlier stages
Genital (12+) - sexual energy focused on genitals
54
State two advantages of the psychodynamic approach
1. First theory to draw connection between childhood and later development
2. First approach to show the potential of psychological treatments to biological treatments - Psychoanalysis can be used to access the unconscious through ink blots, free association and dream analysis. Beginning to psychotherapies
55
State three disadvantages of the psychodynamic approach
1. Based off of case studies - can't make universal claims based off such a small sample
2. Isn't falsifiable - no possibility to disprove through empirical testing so isn't scientific
3. Deterministic in the sense that behaviour is determined by unconscious conflicts rooted in childhood. Free will must be an illusion therefore
56
What is the focus of the humanist approach?
Humans have full conscious control over their behaviour, and thus their destiny - free will. Are able to make choices within biological or societal constraints. Focuses on what goes well in human behaviour, and developed positive psychology - aim to achieve a satisfactory life.
57
Describe the Hierarchy of Needs
Emphasises the importance of personal growth and fulfilment - the more basic the needs, the more essential they are.
1) Physiological - food, breathing, sleep
2) Safety - shelter, health
3) Love/Belonging - family, friends
4) Esteem - respect from others, self-confidence
5) Self-actualisation - those who reach this are creative, accepting of others and have an accurate perception of the world. Experienced through peak experiences
58
Outline the 'focus on the self' in regards to the humanist approach
Refers to each individual requiring positive regard and the feeling of self-worth. The feelings of self-worth develop in childhood and are influenced throughout life.
59
What is congruence and incongruence, and how does this relate to feelings of self-worth?
Congruence = similarity between perceived self and ideal self
Incongruence = inconsistency between perceived self and ideal self
The larger the difference between perceived and ideal, the lower the feelings of self-worth. There's always some level of incongruency - some people use defence mechanisms to accommodate for the inconsistencies
60
Outline the role of conditions of worth
Unconditional positive regard - love and acceptance without conditions of worth
Conditional positive regard - love and acceptance as long as conditions of worth are met (set by others)
61
Outline the influence of counselling psychology
Rogers (1951) believed counselling could help people to solve their issues so they can reach self-actualisation - dissolve conditions of worth. Psychologist acts as a guide, providing empathy and unconditional positive regard for a supportive environment. Client can move towards being 'true self'
62
State two advantages of the humanist approach
1. Encourages positive psychology with the aim of helping people to acheive a satisfactory life
2. Harter et al (1999) found teenagers who had conditional positive regard from parents ended up not liking themselves - more likely to develop depression
63
State four disadvantages of the humanist approach
1. Ignores human capacity for self-destruction - overly idealised/unrealistic view of human nature
2. Difficult to establish a causal relationship between variables - can't scientifically evaluate whether it's the counselling alone that causes personal growth
3. Vague and difficult to test congruence and self-actualisation - subjective
4. Hierarchy of needs varies with culture - in collectivist cultures belonging seen as more essential than some physiological needs, and self-actualisation may refer to helping others rather than independence
