Describe alpha bias in relation to gender bias
Overestimating the difference between the sexes - often devaluing women.
E.g. the sociobiological theory of relationship formation - relations with multiple people is abnormal in women
Describe beta bias in relation to gender bias
Underestimating the difference between the sexes - not including women.
E.g. fight/flight response - ignores tend and befriend
What is androcentrism in relation to gender bias?
When the male view is emphasised above all other views. Androcentric bias refers to when the male view is seen as the norm - deviation seen as inferior/abnormal. Is a result of beta bias
State three advantages of research supporting the presence of gender bias
- Male researchers more likely to have their work published, and research showing a gender difference is more likely published than that not showing a difference - institutional sexism
- Many reported gender differences are based on the essentialist principle (difference is fixed and determined by nature) - in societies with more equality between men and women there’s much less of a psychological difference
- Gender-biased research creates negative stereotypes for women - can be used to justify discrimination. E.g. 1930s research found intellectual activity would shrivel the ovaries and reduce conceiving capability
State two disadvantages of research into gender bias (aims to reduce gender bias)
- Many researchers are recognising the influence of personal views on research. Dambrin and Lambert - personal views affected perception when investigating lack of women in accountancy firms
- Worell proposed criteria to avoid bias: 1) study women in meaningful life contexts 2) women genuinely participate 3) diversity in women instead of comparison to men 4) qualitative data
Define cultural bias. How is this illustrated in psychology?
The judgement of a certain behaviour as standard from the standpoint of a certain culture, so all contrary behaviour is abnormal.
As of 1992, 64% of psychologists were American. Generally ignore culture as an important influencer
Define ethnocentrism
Judging other cultures by the standards/values of one’s own culture e.g. Strange Situation
Define cultural relativism
Findings only make sense from the perspective of the culture within the research was conducted - avoids cultural bias
What is the etic approach? What is an imposed etic?
Looks at behaviour from OUTSIDE of a culture while attempting to identify universal behaviour to make conclusions about universal human behaviour
Imposed etic = research imposes ideology on another culture
What is the emic approach?
Looks at behaviour from WITHIN a culture to understand culture-specific behaviour
State three advantages supporting culture as a major influencer
- Some mental illnesses only exist in some cultures e.g. Brain Fag in West Africa describes someone who has difficulty concentrating/thinking, Koro in China is when a man believes his penis is retracting into his body
- African-Caribbean immigrants 7x more likely to be diagnosed with a mental illness
- The general distinctions of individualistic and collectivist countries isn’t helpful or accurate - Takano and Osaka found 14/15 studies comparing US and Japan showed no evidence of the typical distinction
State two disadvantages not supporting culture as a major influencer
- Some behaviours are universal - e.g. basic human emotions for happiness and disgust, and interactional synchrony across different cultures
- Cross-cultural research can help prevent cultural bias - acknowledges differences in cultures. Counters criticisms of scientific racism, and produces more valid data
Define free will
The idea that humans are self-determining in thoughts and actions. Acknowledges the constraints of biological and societal forces but argues these can be overcome - HUMANIST APPROACH
Define hard determinism
The belief that all behaviour has a cause, and everything is dictated by external factors that we can’t control
Define biological determinism
Emphasises the influence of genetics and innate behaviour, while recognising the influence of the environment e.g. fight/flight, mental disorders - BIOLOGICAL APPROACH
Define environmental determinism
Emphasises the influence of reinforcement and environmental events on behaviour, including the agents of socialisation (parents, teachers, institutions) - BEHAVIOURAL APPROACH
Define psychic determinism
Emphasises the influence of biological drives and instincts - views behaviour as determined by unconscious conflicts repressed in childhood. Everything has a cause - PSYCHODYNAMIC APPROACH
Define soft determinism
The belief that all behaviour has a cause, but people have conscious control over behaviour and can make rational choices - COGNITIVE APPROACH
Evaluate the concept of free will
Advantages:
- Face validity - everyday experiences give the impression of self-determinism, so it seems to be a correct explanation
- Those with a high internal locus of control (believe they’re in control) are more mentally healthy - Roberts et al (2000) found teenagers with strong beliefs in determinism were at a higher risk of depression
Disadvantages:
- Chun Siong Soon et al (2008) found brain imaging showed participants made a decision on pushing a button with their left or right hand 10 seconds before consciously reporting this decision
- Mental disorders, such as schizophrenia, cast doubt on concept of free will - no one would choose to have it
Evaluate the concept of determinism
Advantages:
- Idea of determinism places psychology as consistent with the aims of a science - describes behaviour as orderly, rather than random
- Predicting behaviour helps develop treatments and behavioural therapies
Disadvantages:
1. Unfalsifiable - not all causes of behaviour have the potential to be proved wrong
Describe the nature side of the nature vs nurture debate
Behaviour is determined by innate influences, including any characteristic that is determined for by genes. Based on the principle that any characteristic that aids survival and reproduction is selected for (outcompete others) so is likely to be passed on. e.g. attachment is adaptive.
The higher the concordance rates, the more influential nature is
Describe the nurture side of the nature vs nurture debate
Behaviour is determined by external influenes - social and physical influencers, as well as pre-natal influences.
Behaviourists would view behaviour as solely due to experiences e.g. cupboard love theory, double bind theory
Evaluate the nature vs nurture debate
Disadvantages:
- Interactionist Approach suggests both genetics and the environment are important - shouldn’t be separated. General heritability figure in IQ tests is 0.5, so both genetics and environment important
- Diathesis Stress Model - nature triggered by nurture. Those with relatives with schizophrenia most likely to be concordant if they also had a dysfunctional adopted family (Finnish adoptees)
- Nurture affects nature - Maguire et al (2000) london taxi drivers had a larger hippocampus
- Epigenetics (third element to debate) - changes to genetic activity without changing genome due to lifestyle choices. Male mice given electric shocks to perfume, showed in offspring
Define reductionism
Belief that human behaviour is best explained by breaking it down into smaller parts. The simplest explanation is the best one
