1
Q
what is important for deciding what to dig
A
-precise surface survey and accurate topographic map of site
2
Q
what is the first decision to be made for excavations
A
-to carry out a total or a selective excavation
3
Q
methods of finding arky sites
A
-chance discoveries
-ask a local
-documentary records
-oral traditions
-arky survey
4
Q
2 basic types of archaeological survery
A
- reconnaissance survey: prelim examination of survey area to identify major sites, assess potential, and establish site distributions
- intensive survey: detailed field survey that covers entire area, may include subsurface testing
5
Q
1st type of intensive survey
A
- non-problematic (judgemental): targeting of specific areas by excavator in non-random matter. often used when they are interested in visible/suspected sites. results can’t be extrapolated beyond area, or used to generalize about non-sampled contexts
6
Q
2nd type of intensive survey
A
-problematic (random) sampling: random sampling techniques to mathematically relate small samples of data to larger study areas by studying a representative sample of the whole area. it makes generalizations derived from sample to entire area.
7
Q
approaches to ground survey methods
A
- quadrants (grid)
- transects (straight line)
- opportunistic sampling (based on visible or obvious finds not a strict plan)
8
Q
Mapping: Geographic Information Systems (GIS)
A
-1980s
-revolutionized storage and display of cartographic data, including arky sites
-uses GPS (global positioning system) data to render points, lines, and polygons in 3D space
9
Q
2 types of Mapping: Geographic Information Systems (GIS)
A
- total station: tripod at fixed point, lasers for distancing and angles, best for detailed excavation mapping (very precise)
- base station and handheld receiver: base station is fixed point, receiver is carried around. good for large survey areas, is less precise but faster and more portable
10
Q
simple random sampling
A
-simplest form of probabilistic sampling
-numbers assigned to grid randomly
-spacing is uneven
-large parts may be left out by chance
-organized, even coverage, but time consuming and inefficient
11
Q
stratified random sampling
A
-for when survey area isn’t uniform
-broader area divided for variation within the area (ecological zones, activity areas, and artifact classes)
-categories designated units proportional to area
-within each division, the position of the sample is determined randomly
-more complex and time consuming but good representation and no bias
12
Q
systematic sampling
A
-one unit chosen at random, and then the rest are selected at equal interval to first
-sample units evenly distributed
-avoids areas of low sample concentration that could be a problem for random sampling
-may oversample or miss every site if arky material has fallen at regular intervals
-simple, even, efficient. but bias and not random
13
Q
systematic unaligned sampling
A
-characteristics of random sampling plus systematic sampling
-sample space into divisions, the units are placed randomly placed within divisions
-“stratified Systematic Sampling”
-no bias, good coverage, but complex and time consuming
14
Q
stonehenge
A
-neolithic and bronze age
-henge, hundreds of burial mounds, pits, and ritual shrines
15
Q
remote sensing methods
A
- google earth (GE)
- aerial photography: shadow marks, crop marks, soil marks, and infrared false colour photographs
- nonphotographic methods: satellite sensor imagery, aircraft-borne sensor imagery (sideways-looking airborne radar - SLAR, and LiDAR - laser from airplane)
- subsurface sampling
16
Q
crop marks
A
-show up during droughts (at stoenhenge, a short watering hose created uneven drying patterns)
-difference in plant growth cause by burial features - wells hold more water and crops grow taller, walls have less soil and crops are shorter
17
Q
resistivity
A
-measures how easily electricity passes through soil
-wet soil is low resistance, dry soil is high resistance
-good for detecting walls and ditches, but time consuming and affected by soil moisture
18
Q
LANDSAT 7
A
-single nadir-pointing instrument
-sun-synchronous (orbits 705km above earth with swath width of 185km. revisits the same area every 16 days, 250 images per day)
-8 bands (6 is thermal infrared and 8 is panchromatic)
-ETM+ Scan Line Corrector failed in 2003 resulting in an image with major geometric error
18
Q
gradiometry/magnetometry
A
-variations in Earth’s magnetic field
-detects pits, ditches
-fast but gets interference from metal and less effective for stone
19
Q
LANDSAT and visual analysis
A
-fowler 2002
-LANDSAT 7 TM
-visual analysis of Iron Age British hillfort Figsbury Ring
-identification of previously identified features using visible and infrared wavelengths
20
Q
infrared satellite imaging
A
-multiple bands capturing different wavelengths (visual, infrared, and multispectral)
-computer programs ca create false coloured images of particular bands (ERDAS and ArcGIS)
-hidden features become visible (changes in vegetation)
21
Q
LiDAR mapping
A
-light detection and ranging
-pulsing laser (mounted on aircraft
-measures distance based on time it takes for pulse of light to reach target and return
-measures height of ground surface and all features
-highly accurate digital surface model, maps of all surface features
22
Q
ground penetrating radar
A
-non invasive
-pulses reflected at different rates depending on density of sub-surface features
-grid
-3d surface map (low res for large features)
-used for unmarked graves, res. schools for ex
23
Q
magnetic survey
A
-near-surface magnetic fields
-gradiometry (axial and planar gradiometer)
-data on grid, on foot
24
axial and planar gradiometer
-axial: 2 magnetometers placed aboved each other
-planar: 2 magnetometers placed next to each other
25
surface sampling methods
-surface collection (gathers representative samlpes of artifacts from surface of site. works best in low vegetation and soil deposition. extensive clearing)
-techniques inclue dogleash and square units
26
dogleash
-walk sites in parallel lines (like dog on a leash). even coverage but limited by vegetation or obstacles
27
sub-surface sampling methods
-used when visibility is poor.
-shovel test pits (stps) - shallow holes of prescribed size and depth made with shovel
-auger/core borer - hand-operated or power tool. bore through subsurface deposits to find depth and consistency of arky deposits
28
considerations for excavation
pobabilistic and nonprobabilistic choices and logistical considerations
29
methods: total excavation
-very rate, expensive
-comprehensive but leaves none of the site intact for later excavation with potentially more advanced techniques
30
worlds weirdest mcdonalds
-italy, 2014. remains of roman road and 3 human skeletons 2k yrs old
-built mcdonalds with glass floor and preserved artifacts in situ
-visitors can go underneath and walk on the road.
31
methods: vertical trenches
-mounds/temples, deep deposits and CRM projects
-full sequence of occupation/construction
-placed to reveal max amount of info
-could cause erosion if not backfilled right
32
methods: vertical testing
-for lower strata to establish extent of deposits
-for stratigraphic sequences (chronology or getting samples from wide range of contexts)
-used where horizontal excavation may cause future preservation problems
-test pits are excavated to bedrock or sterile soil and can go up to 10x10
-telephone booths: small and narrow pits that go for depth not width
33
controlling vertical space
-levels used to divide vertical space to see stratigraphy and battleship curves
1. natural levels: visible changes in matrix
2. artificial levels: arbitrary depths to divide matrix
-at the end of each level, photograph, draw, bag, and tag
34
types of maps
1. plan map: top down view to identify horizontal associations between artifacts/features usually in contemporary deposits
2. profile: side view, to identify stratigraphy, depositional sequences, changes over time
35
methods: horizontal (area) excavation
-larger scale than vertical
-total excavation of small areas, structures, or city blocks
-uncovers wide areas to recover building plans or layout
-grid for horizontal spatial controls through excavation of individual units within the grid
36
establishing the grid
-cartesian coordinate system: 2d or 3d based on intersecting, perpendicular incremented lines
-datum: basis for measuring, reference point
-site datum: permanent feature for reference point from which the entire site is measured
-grid unit: square on the cartesian coordinate system designated by the coordinate in one corner often SW
37
Baulk method
-horizontal excavations make it hard to remove soil from centre units
-grids with baulks: unexcavated portion of each unit. along all grid lines. footpaths for excavators. preserve vertical record. best with large grid
-checkerboard patterns: excavate every other unit or row, best for smaller grid
38
documentation
-all deposits recorded in 3 dimensions
-plans and profiles
-levels
-point-plotting of special finds
39
consolidation and restoration
-deposits without architecture are backfilled
-standing architecture may be consolidated and reconstructed
-re-placement of collapsing mesonry blocks
-use of natural materials/cement to prevent collapse
40
special excavation issues
-sometimes face unexpected challenges
-fragile objects - deteriorate quickly
-burials - cultural sensitivity, preserve context
-structures and pits - hard to distinguish, needs careful mapping
41
what happens after excavation
-wash certain artifacts (lithics, ceramics, NOT metal or fragile or stuff that can be analyzed for residues)
-conservation (stabilize and reconstruct fragile objects)
-classification
42
four major objectives in classify artifacts
1. organize data into manageable units
2. describing types
3. identifying relationships between types
4. studying assemblage variability in the arky record
43
what can we learn from categorizing artifacts (8)
-site chronology
-exchange patterns
-ancient tech
-class difference
-political power expression
-religious beliefs/practices
-diet and health
-gendered behaviours
44
how to classify artifacts
taxonomy and typology
45
taxonomy
-system of classifying concepts, materials, objects, and phenomena used in many sciences including arky
46
typology
-based on construction of types (type is grouping of artifacts based on form, chronology, function, or style)
-search for patterns among objects or the variables defining those objects
47
attributes
-minimal characteristics of artifacts to the point it cannot be further divided
-commonly studied in terms of form, style, decoration, colour, tech, and raw material
48
3 types of attributes
-formal: shape, measurable dimensions and components
-stylistic: surface characteristics like colour, texture, decoration
-technological: raw material including shape, shape of parts, measurable dimensions
49
technology
-allows humans to exploit environment
-set of techniques and info that tells ways to covert raw material into tools, to process food, construct food, etc
50
stylistic choices
-made by both producer and consumer
-may be intentional, or may result from unconscious habits
51
technological style
-delibrate choices made by producers to get specific mechanical and visual properties
52
topics in lithic technology
-tool production
-food procurement
-tool use
-craft specialization
-exchange patterns
-relationship between style and technology
53
key words in lithic analysis
chipped stone, groundstone, objective piece, core debitage
54
chipped stone
modification through flaking techniques, either percussion or pressure
55
groundstone
modification through grinding techniques including pecking, abrasion, polishing, or sawing
56
objective piece
core or tool being modified by the flintknapper
57
core
large piece of raw material from which flakes are removed
58
debitage
waste flake or spall that is removed from an objective piece. Usually discarded, but some recycled into utilized flakes or into tools
59
flintknapping methods
-direct percussion
-indirect percussion
-pressure flaking
-bipolar percussion
-retouch or marginal retouch
60
direct percussion
-striking core directly with hammerstone or antler billet, or striking against a fixed stone or anvil
-initial shaping
61
indirect percussion
-striking a punch, usually made of wood or bone placed against a core
-tool shaping
62
pressure flaking
-apply pressure against core with a punch, usually antler tine
-final shaping or prismatic blades
63
bipolar percussion
core on anvil and direct percussion to split into 2 or more pieces
64
reotuch
little flaking along edge (sharpening or resharpening)
65
formal, stylistic, and technological attributes for lithics
-formal: tool or debitage forms and dimensions
-stylistic: flake removal patterns, tool design
-technological: raw material, heat treatment, production techniques, flake platform and termination characteristics, and usewear from cutting/sawing/scraping. along the tool edges
66
5 methods for investigating lithics
traditional analysis. experimental flintknapping, petrographic analysis, compositional analysis, and usewear
67
traditional analysis
forms, production, characteristics, macroscopic raw material
68
petrographic analysis
for groundstone (identifying minerals) and also used for ceramics and metals
69
compositional analysis
-elements. x-ray flourescence and neutron activation analysis (I)NAA
70
usewear
traditional reflected light microscopy
-scanning electron microscopy
71
key issues at san estevan site in belize
1. tool production (chert and chaledony raw materials are common. lots of toold and debitage)
2. formal vs informal tools (standard vs expedient flakes)
3. regional trade (raw material and tools from Colha - workshop site)
72
details of san estevan
-zone of cryptocrystalline pebbles and zone of chert nodules
-there is late middle formative cobble surface
-early late formative plaster floor
-platform construction of structure XV
-middle formative stratum
73
lithic tools production for san estevan
-the most cores
-then hammerstone, bifacial microcore, microcore, phase 1 biface, and tested cobble
74
photos of lithics at san estevan for week 8 lithic technology 1 and 2
75
obsidian sourcing in chiapas
key issues are tool production (chert common) and regional trade (most obsidian are prismatic blades, imported and tested using xray flourescence)
76
xray fluorescence process
-x-ray generated by instrument and bombard sample
-electrons ejected from inner shells of atoms
-each elements produces unique xrays w energies to be read
77
XRF methods
-distinguishes similar looking sources, could be important for political boundaries/trade networks
-obidian is possible from looking at colour but most are too similar
-other methods can be expensive or destructive
78
interpreting XRF
-elemental concentrations compared to quarry samples from obsidian sources
-artifacts matched to sources
79
10 topics in ceramics
* Chronology/typology
* Environmental and raw materials (clay, temper, fuel)
* Vessel production
* Craft specialization/workshops
* Cooking and storage (Origins of sedentism/agriculture)
* Vessel function and use (organic residues, use-wear)
* Technical ceramics (metallurgy, glassmaking)
* Exchange patterns/trade networks
* Religion and ritual
* Understand the relationship between style and technology
80
how to study ceramics
-formal attributes (vessel form and dimension)
-stylistic attributes (surface)
-technological attributes (paste colour, texture, elements, temper, production, firing)
81
how to tell where pottery is from
1. compare to local pottery, clay sources, or pottery from earby regions
2. seriation (distinctive colours, forms, decorative techniques)
3. number and type of materials, using petrograph, XRD, and scanning electron
4. amount/type of elements (compositional analysis) - XRF, neutron activation analysis, SEM-EDS, mass spec
82
pottery in the modern world
-traded produced in massive quantities from specialized workshops
-fine ware (tableware) and coarse wares (cooking)
-transportation - amphorae
-figurines, oil lamps, roof tiles, bricks and ceramic pipes
83
roman ceramic production methods
1. modeling/coil: coils stacked and smoothed
2. mold: pressed into mold for decorative vessels
3. Potter's wheel: shaped on spinning wheel
84
roman kiln technology
-la graufesenque
-production centre for terra sigillata pottery
-9-storey kilns, 40k items, 1000c
-documented with lists of potters names and numbers of pots
85
terra sigillata
-clay bearing little images
-res slipped tablewears
-arezzo italy
-gallic sigillata exported from production workshops in france like la graufesenque
-pottery moulds for outer surfaces
86
ceramic transportation
-romans controlled mediterranean
-naval warships like battle and piracy
-merchant ships for trade and tax collection
-ceramics like terra sigillata were commodities but amphorae were containers for valuable liquids
87
amphorae
-shipping containers for wine, olive oil, garum
-vessels painted or stamped with type, weight, production area, shipment date, and amount of import duty
-traded over roman empire
88
monte testaccio rome
-hill with 53 mil amphorae
-olive oil, and the residues were rancid, not able to use
-close to port on Tiber river
-mostly from spain or north america for distribution by state officials
89
oil lamps
-some metal but most ceramic
-olive or veg. oil
-moulds used
-stamped w names of producers or workshops
-good for documenting production and exchange
-more common closer to mediterranean cause of olive oil availability
90
roman roof tiles
-2 parts
-tegula (square tile with upturned edges)
-imbrex (half cylinder)
-mass produced, stamped w manufacturer and organization
91
bricks
-most common building material back then
-plastered over to look like marble
92
pipes
-from recycled amphorae or lead
93
roman ceramics at pompeii
-originally independent, besieged in 89bc by general sulla
-became roman colony
-mount vesuvius buried it in AD 79
94
potters at pompeii
-two frescos depict potters
-officina vasaria di nicanor (venue for manufacturer or pottery sale, depicts Vulcan over pottery wheel)
-hospitium dei pulcinella (pottery shop, shows activities in a shop)
95
pottery facilities at Pompeii
-via di nocera workshop (best preserved, 5 rooms 2 kilns, 123 dice cups, bivalve moldsfor oil lamps
-via superior workshop (5 rooms, 2 kilns, cooking vessels. 382 identical vessels)
96
consumption patterns of pottery at pompeii
-local workshops made tablewares, oil lamps, dice cups
-local stores supply pottery
-lots were imported from spain, tuscany, cyprus, etc
97
ischia clays
-exported throughout bay of naples
-Petrographic analysis, XRD, XRF, Neutron Activation Analysis
-pottery wasters made from it
-compana black gloss ware
98
cumanae patellae
redware cooking pans for chicken stews made at cumae
99
petrographic analysis (ceramics)
-examine clays and the type and density of non-plastic inclusions (temper)
-different materials will reflect/refract light differently (crystal forms, colours)
-voids indicate organic temper
-surface decoration in cross-section
100
x-ray diffraction (ceramics)
-crystalline structures
-xrays reflect into specific directions like a fingerprint
-specific angles and intensities
-non crystalline do not have sharp peaks
101
xrd at pompeii and herculaneum
-mostly volcanic
-neo formed gehlenite = some fired at 950 C causing calcite to chemically react with clay
-must use 2 different local clay sources
102
SEM-EDS pottery from Pompeii
-red slip gloss looks more uniform, lighter and thinner than fired clay
-black gloss has higher K content from added wood ash or reduced firing environment
103
In what context or type of material would srf be appropriate
ceramic technology
104
topics in archaeometallurgy
-tool/ornament production and use
-mines, quarries
-craft
-exchange of metal items
-relationship between style and technology (social meanings and variations between groups)
105
methods for investigating ancient metals
-similar to ceramics
-seriation: alloy colours, forms, gilding, decorative
-look for alloys through metallography - thin sections of objects (slags) and metallurgical ceramics (blowpipes, crucibles, furnaces). very similar to petrographic
-compositional analysis: XRF, neutron activation analysis, SEM-EDS
106
copper working process
107
4 basic stages of metal production
1. mining
2. smelting
3. refining and remelting
4. forging
108
mining
-ore extraction and preparation
109
benefication
ore crushing
110
smelting
-reduction of mineral ore to a metal alloy
-uses furnaces, and crucibles are used to hold fragments inside furnace
-waste materials from smelting: slag
111
refining or remelting (copper/silver/tin/alloys)
-casting metal into objects
-annealing (reheating and allowing it to cool slowly, to harden and remove internal stress)
-hot/cold hammering: shapes and sharpens the edge
112
remelting uses
crucibles and blowpipes
113
forging/shaping (iron/steel)
-heating
-hammering (usually hot)
-quenching in water
114
metalworking at mayapan mexico
-bells, rings, tweezers, small tools
-mostly decorative or ceremonial not practical
-trade networks not original
115
XRF metals
-tells which metals and the composition of alloys and difference between objects
116
PXRF results: Metal object alloy composition by context
-elemental composition of metal objects
-percentages of elements
117
petrography of metallurgical ceramics
-type of clay and tempers used
-whether materials are local or imported
118
copper in ceramic fabric
24 (57%) of the analyzed specimens contain copper pieces or prills within fabric of ceramic
119
M-121
-confirms ceramic was in metallurgy not domestic use
-help identify production areas or workshops
120
bioarchaeology
-recovery and analysis of human skeletal remains
-human osteology
-could design excavation or work as specialists
121
wari empire
-AD 600-110
-peru
-competition w Tiwanaku empire of southern Peru/Bolivia/Chile
122
tung 2007 violence in the wari empire
-3 skeletal populations:
-conchopata (elite residential site)
-beringa (community of commoners)
-la real (high status mortuary cave)
-wari imperialism resulted in greater levels of violence relative to other groups related to militarism
-gender differences in trauma. 25% of women - likely running from attacker not facing, men had more healed from longterm.
123
inventory
-number of different bones, completness, MNI
124
wari and pre wari inventory
-MNI: 181
-focused mainly on crania, juveniles (15yrs) and trophy heads excluded
-77 left ribs (MNI 12) and 34 eft ulna
125
sex differences
genetic, phenotypical differences
126
gender differences
cultural meanings, roles, expectations assigned to or experienced by people in society (usually on basis of biological)
127
sex differences and culture
-modern western biology is heteronormative (2 sexes, XX female and XY male)
-in reality it is variable and complex
-sex structures mediated by chromosomes, genetic mutations, and hormones
128
human osteology and determining biological sex
-sex changes to existing skeletal elements develop at puberty (skull and pelvis)
-skeletal features to identify is 80-95% accurate
-Ancient DNA is very expensive
-mummified could have internal and external structures related to biological sex, and clothing or stuff related to gender
129
skull
-5 key traits
-nuchal crest
-mastoid process
-supraorbital margin
-supraorbital ridge
-mental eminence
130
nuchal crest
bump at the back of the head. smooth or sharp
131
mastoid process
right below ear canal, smaller female larger male
132
supraorbital margin
around the eye
133
supraorbital ridge
brow ridge
134
mental eminence
-chin
135
os coxae
-phenice
-overall shape
136
ventral arc
-looking at pelvis sideways from the inside out
-the right and left edges
-held with cartilage and when deceased that goes away and it splits into 2.
-curved and thin is likely female
137
subpubic concavity
-bone below the pelvis holes on the sides
-male is broad, flat, thick, and straight
-female is an arch
138
medial aspect of the ischiopubic ramus
-far ends of pelvis
-looking from inside out
-males are broad and thick and females are thin and bridged (this bone separates during childbirth and comes back together)
139
greater sciatic notch
-where bones of pelvis hit sacrum
-for support
-female is large and arched shaped (supports extra weight during pregnancy)
-men are fish hook
140
Identifying Biological Sex at Wari Empire Sites
-conchopata: residential site. 8 men 16 female, suggesting men buried somewhere else
-beringa: commoners, 10 men 13 female
-la real: mortuary cave, 39M 26F
141
age at death estimation
-Juveniles: development and maturation
-Adults: degeneration
142
Age - juveniles
-tooth eruption: appearance of teeth above alveolar margin. compare to general chart
-long bones: overall length and epiphysis closure
143
age - adults
-cranial structures: open when young, and slowly fuse over time
-pubic symphysis: "crusty" over time
-dental wear: enamel wears down and dentine within tooth exposed
144
age in wari empire
-crania
-different demographic in the shape of the curve
-hard to get to specific age from cranial closure
-lots of warriors and people part of the Wari army buried at young adults - they think this because of them being close in age and all buried together
145
trauma to cranium
-types: antemortem (before death), perimortem (cause of death), and post-mortem modification
-look for violence vs injury: location, freshness, discoloration of bone
146
antemortem trauam
-healed depressions, the bone may not regrow and the person likely will have a scar
-examples were supraorbital region and other one was from mace
147
perimortem trauma
-cracks radiating out without healing
-usually parietal bones, and a swinging motion unless they are very tall
-no evidence of healing
148
post-cranial trauma
-most likely violence
-depressed fracture (weapon wounds)
-cut marks
-punctures
-embedded projectile points
-"parry fractures" - radius or ulna from direct blow from trying to protect yourself
-fractures to phalanges - face to face assault
149
trauma from accidental injury
-compression fractures and hairline/spiral fractures
-spiral will very rarely indicate cannibalism
150
postmortem violence
-burning/dislocation
-deliberate breakage of green bone (percussion pits, spiral fractures, chop marks, conjoining fragments)
-defleshing (cuts marks and mandible taken as war trophies)
151
cranial trauma in wari empire
-perimortem vs healed trauma
-radiating fractures, puncture wounds, depression fractures
-70% on left side indicating right handed attacker
152
post-cranial injuries and Beringia
-broken ribs and healed rib fractures
-parry fractures (ulna from attack)
153
la real
-mostly anterior cranial wounds
-face to face warfare
-formalized warfare
-often non-fatal wounds
-few parry fractures
-men more head trauma than women
154
ancestry diet and origin
-ancestry: ancient DNA
-origin: strontium isotopes - specific to localities and based on groundwater/geochemistry. oxygen isotopes tell about climate
-diet: carbon and nitrogen isotopes
155
goals of ancient DNA analysis
-kinship and lineage
-paleopathology
-origins of domestication (plant and animal)
-population history and migration
-evolution and hominin links
156
dna
-double helix strand, CG and AT link
157
types of dna studies
-nuclear dna: most complete and most info. from cell nucleus, mixture of both parents
-mitochondrial dna: in mitochondria of the cell. from MOTHER
-Y chromosome: FATHER
158
haplogroups
-similar haplotypes that share common ancestor and have same singer nucleotide polymorphism mutation
159
haplotype
-specific group of genes that offspring inherits from one parent
-collection of specific mutations within given genetic segment
160
issues in ancient dna studies
-degeneration of dna: only short fragments can be used. generation of mis coding lesions. physical destruction of dna
-contamination from modern dna: from researchers, plants, animals, bacteria, fungi
-lack of comparative database: extinct species and undersampled populations
161
isotope studies: mass spec
-isolate bone collagen. cut off a small bone piece, and isolate collagen using acid
-run samples throguh. identifies isotopes based of mass to charge ratios. isotopes vary by number of neutrons in the nucleus
-used for C N Sr isotopes
162
stable carbon isotope
-3 pathways
-C3: terrestrial plants like cereals, legumes, veggies, nuts, fruits, tubers
-C4: tropical grasses like maize and quinoa
-Crassulacean Acid Metabolism (CAM): succulents - cacti
-also marine vs terrestrial ecosystems
163
stable nitrogen isotope
-marine vs terrestrial foods
-vary according to trohic level (predator vs prey)
-aridity (dry)
164
strontium isotopes
-87Sr/86Sr
-provenance and mobility of ancient people and animals
-strontium values in soil, water, plants vary across landscape cause of bedrock composition
165
strontium, habitat and mobility
-Sr ratios in an organism's tissues reflect the organism's habit
-matched to an isocape of Sr ratio values across landscape
-Sr values in teeth reflect habitat during development
-Sr values in bone may change over a lifetime cause bone is remodelled
-difference between Sr values in the bone and local samples may suggest migration or animal product change
166
Sr isotopes at Teotihuacan
-81 samples
-9 rabbits
-62 from neighborhoods
-10 from Monte alban
-found many individuals were immigrants from Oaxaca
167
environment - ecology
-the air, water, minerals, organisms, and all external factors surrounding and affecting a given organism at any time
168
the archaeology of landscape
humans create landscapes, places on the landscape are laden with meaning
169
historical ecology
landscape analysis is a type of historical ecology where changing landscapes over long time periods serve as cultural records
170
People of Treaty 7 (Calgary)
Blackfoot Confederacy, comprised of the Siksika, Piikani and Kainai First Nations; the Stoney Nakoda First Nations, comprised of the Chiniki, Bearspaw and Wesley First Nations; and the Tsuut’ina First Nations. Calgary is also home to the Metis Nation of Alberta, Region 3.
171
blackfoot name for Calgary
Mohkinstsis meaning Elbow
172
arky sites in Calgary date to
early period, 11,050 yrs ago
173
what filled the Bow Valley at the end of the Ice Age
-glacial lake calgary
-layers of fine silt and clay on lake floor
-Bow river eventually carved new channels through the valley (bluffs and floodplains)
174
landscape and culture in Calgary
-calgary is an arky hotspot cause there is a high density of sites showing 11k yrs of occupation
-survey, excavation and traditional knowledge show certain types of sites are associated with specific places on landscape
175
calgary spring vs winter sites
-spring sites are in higher hillside locations (warm sun, dry ground)
-winter sites are in floodplains and valley floors (lower elevations are warmer and sheltered from the wind)
176
hawkwood site, nose hill
-early spring camp, used for hunting and cooking bison and for plant gathering
177
bison killsites calgary
-jumps are at edges of bluffs and ridges. Pounds at the base of cliffs or in swampy areas
178
corridors and locations for ceremonies
-rivers and streams provided travel corridors and sources of animals and plants
-hilltops and ridges for ceremony
179
bison pound from Paskapoo Slopes
use of corrals and traps during spring/winter. sites on upper slopes included killsites and camps for butchering and processing
180
landscape importance at head smashed in
-10,000 years ago
(valley floor sites are earlier).
* Jump sites along steep cliffs on the edge of the Porcupine Hills
* Traditional territory of the Peigan
* Bands come together in the fall and cooperate.
* Specific jump sites chosen, drive lanes created so bison can't detect edge
* Particular outcrops above the drive lanes were marked with petroglyphs
181
points at head smashed in
-earliest is mummy cave
-a few scottsbluff
182
long-term climate change
millennial scale. long-term affects on human existence. like the Ice Age
183
short term climate change
-floods or droughts
-el nino/la nina cycles
-volcanic eruptions
184
really short term climate change
weather
185
el nino/la nina
-every 7 years
-opposing climate patterns in Pacific Ocean
-nino is warm (when trade winds weaker pushing warm water eastward
-nina is cold (strengthens winds pushing warm water warm and cool water east
186
phanerozoic climate change
-oxygen isotope ratio is showing long term fluctuation
187
cenozoic temperature change
-extinction of dinosaur, crater hits, fractures limestone, reptiles die out and others slowly become birds
-small mammals expand habitat and dominate the planet in terms of biomass
-average global temp was around 12 degrees warmer than it is now
-used to be more rain and rainforests
-antarctic ice sheet and massive landscape transformation at around 30-10 mil years ago
188
various measurements of global temperature
-steep rise of temps
-swings of temps falling
-since the dawn of industrial revolution
189
ecocide
mismanagement of soils and or animal populations
-in ecocide they wipe out their settlement or even something much larger
190
method 1 for studying past climates
-geoarchaeology: study of arky using methods and concepts of Earth sciences
-sedimentology: paleosols. identify periods of drying (more time dry than not) and increased soil deposition
-site-formation processes: stratigraphy. distinguish human caused from natural
191
Method 2 for studying past climates
-isotope analysis. Most use mass spec
-isotopes are versions of an element with the same number of protons but with different numbers of neutrons
192
different isotopes used with mass analysis
-oxygen 18O/16O: reconstruct past global temps. ice cores. marine shells. speleothems.
-Carbon: Diet (13C/12C): types of plants eaten and or marine vs terrestrial meat. radiocarbon dating (14C/N14)
-nitrogen (N15/N14): diet (trophic level - predators vs prey)
-strontium (87Sr/86Sr): population movement and trade
-Uranium (234U/230Th): uranium series dating of speleothems and cave deposits
193
which oxygen isotope evaporates quickest
-16O because it is lighter, leaving higher portions of 18O
194
speleothem research
-if theres lots of limestone and caves then there will be speleothem
-they took speleothems out and looked at uranium series dates and oxygen isotope research
195
Method 3 for studying past climates
-zooarchaeology
-reconstructs past animal life and changes proportions of wild animal species can indicate human or climate impacts to local ecosystems
-function of site, what was preformed there
-subsistence and diet (hunting, domestication, status)
-sacrifices and feasting
196
4th method of studying past climates
-palynology (pollen analysis)
-ecosystems and habitat (human impacts)
-site functions and activity types
-plant domestication, agriculture, plant processing, status differences
-plant offerings in ceremonial practices
197
westward norse expansion
-viking raids first in AD 793
-rivalry between chieftans for prestige items
-colonization of iceland (medieval icelandic annals
-colonization of greenland by settlers from iceland
-colonization of newfoundland
198
The Collapse of the Western Norse Settlements
The abandonment was not caused by a single event, but rather a combination of environmental, economic, and social factors that made life in the Arctic colony unsustainable
199
norse colonies in greenland
settled by Erik the Red
-peak population 3000
-norse kings converted to christianity (over 20 churches built, bishops held power and controlled trade)
200
L'Anse aux Meadows
-newfoundland (vinland)
-first and only documented viking settlement in NA
-norse expedition sailed from greenland around AD 1000 (Leif Eriksson, son of Erik the red)
201
life at L'Anse aux Meadows
-identified in 1960
-8 timer-sod buildings
-icelandic style
-temporary colony: C14 dates Ad 990-1050
-large residence with multiple rooms
-3 small buildings (workshops or lower status crew)
-iron smithy with forge and iron slag
-carpentry workshop - boat repair
202
Faunal remains at L’Anse aux Meadows
-not including cattle
-mostly Atlantic cod (timber colony or fishing?)
-cloth/thread - knitting needle, spindle, stone loom weights
-no sheep bones (possibly wool from Greenland)
-typically womens work
203
collapse and abandonment at L’Anse aux Meadows
-prior to AD 1364
-Ivar Bardarson's description of Greenland
-problems with sea lice
-blames destruction on Skraelings
-final abandonment AD 1450
204
why did the settlements collapse?
possibilities:
-over grazing cattle
-attacks by thule
-climate change (more sea ice)
-refusal to adapt to local conditions
-collapse of trade routes
-falling ivory prices
-overspending on luxury
205
isotopes
-temperature, storms, and marine diet in food
206
zooarchaeology faunal remains from Greenland sites
-norse died out because they "refused to learn" (diamond hypothesis
-too far north for cereal
-mixed herding/hunting (cows, sheep, goats. seals. mammal bones for marrow. documents claim fish but there are rarely found fish bones. hunting walrus for ivory, polar bears for furs
207
end of western settlementq
-medium sized farm (Nipaatsoq)
-ptarmigan and Arctic hare remains in the larder and hall
-bones of lamb. newborn calf and hunting dog butchered
-end of settlement was in late winter
208
new evidence from excavations
-carbon isotopes: norse ate marine animals
-carbou, seal, whale bones
-use of walrus ivory buttons
-at L'anse the colony ate local mammals birds and fish
209
sedimentology
-Norse were incompetent farmers and eroded fragile arctic soils (diamond hypothesis)
-colonists introduced cattle and edible grass
-new evidence says they allowed soil to recover after tilling, refertilizing with manure, attempting conservation (too late?)
210
palynology
-pollen from 14 sites
-colonists introduced grass species for cattle
-land use expansion of animal husbandry, abandon settlments
211
Did the Thule “cause” the Norse collapse?
-moved from Canada (inuit)
-acquired metal
-few signs of hostility
-thule could interrupt norse hunting grounds
-norse seemed reluctant to accept their skin kayaks, harpoons, or winter clothing
212
first nations women in Iceland
-mtDNA haplogroups found evidence of C1: found in Indigenous Americans. C1a in Asian. new lineage is different enough to be C1e
-hypothesized women from Americas came to Iceland
-found a new subclade in Russia
-C1e and C1f possibly from Viking raids in Russia. both went extinct
213
political organization
-activities and beliefs of territory based groups
-band, tribe, chiefdom, state, empire
214
level of political integration
-largest territorial group on whose behalf political activities are organized
215
band organization
-fairly small, nomadic group that is politically autonomous (30-50 people)
-enforce egalitarian principles
-no hereditary leaders or political institutions
-members can split off to other bands
-some use term band to refer to tribal division
216
tribal organization
-territorial population where there are kin or non-kin groups with representatives in many local groups
217
What distinguishes tribal from band political organization
-the presence in the former of some multilocal, but not usually society-wide, integration
-age sets and clans
218
chiefdom
-political unit, chief at the head, integrating more than one community but not the whole society or language group
219
states
-class stratification
-three or more levels of hierarchy
-leaders with power to govern by force (army, police)
220
empires
-expansionist state that assumes political control over other state through actual or threatened military force
221
ethnographic cultures
-most countries
-states in arky known cultures often hereditary monarchies with small numbers of council rulership
-Modern states also include democracies, republics, and constitutional monarchies
222
5 different lifeways
foraging, pastoralism, fishing, horticulture, intensive agriculture
223
foraging
-hunting/gatering/seasonal coastal resource use
-small groups, mobile, labour division by age and gender
-no land ownership
224
what do foragers do as they move along the landscape
1. patterned way for specific seasonal resources (faunal, plant, and chipped stone)
2. recognize and defend traditional territories
3. traditional territories often have major landforms, landscapes, and oral histories (sometimes sacred named places and routes marked with cairns)
225
Niitsitapi - traditional territory of the Piikani
-favoured campsites near sacred landscapes
-tipi rings
-medicine wheels associated with circle camps known for okan (sun dance)
-old woman projectile points
226
foragers and states
-arguments for forager bands being less evolved than food producers
-bands still exist
-political disruption could cause agricultural groups to take up forager lifestyle
-foragers often lose land and resources from infringement
-states force foraging groups to become sedentary (for control) - violence and assimilation
227
Foragers in the Archaeological Record
-leave little trace
-mobile lifestyle inhibits possession accumulation (stone tools)
-privilege sustainable lifeways
-communal hunting sites are dense with material
228
common artifacts at forager sites
◦ Projectile points
◦ Scrapers
◦ Digging/pounding/grinding implements
◦ Hearths/Boiling pits/Earth ovens/Fire-
cracked rock
◦ Post-holes, tipi rings, and other
remnants of portable shelters
◦ Post-holes from smoking/drying racks
for preserving meat
◦ Faunal remains and bone tools (Jumps, drives, caches)
229
Mahaffy Cache (Boulder CO)
-13kya (colvis era)
-80+ stone tools (mostly bifacial knives and scrapers)
-raw materials from colorodo wyoming and utah
-protein residues from camels, horses, bear, sheep (butchering)
230
fenn cache (clovis WY)
-clovis era artifacts
-spear points, bifaces, and a unique crescent
-obsidian and red jasper
231
pastoralism
-depends on domesticated her animals fed on natural pasture
-small groups, division of labour by age and gender
-intensive vs extensive systems
-community land ownership, private herd ownership
232
Pastoralism in the Archaeological Record
-portable shelters (seasonal occupation similar to foragers)
-property/valuables are portable
-lack of property boundaries
-pens or other temporary shelters
-faunal remains = domestications
-small numbers of trade products
233
fishing
-sedentary not foragers
-social inequality and status competition are more common
-family or kin groups own nets, traps, kayaks, fishing sites, houses
234
sedentism
-investment in built architecture
-year round occupation
-pottery, grinding stones, glass (non portable material)
235
horticulture
-shifting (slash and burn) cultivation vs forestry (tree crops)
-larger groups semi mobile
-community land ownership and private tree/crop ownership
236
Domestic plant cultivation in the archaeological record
-horiculture/agriculture:
-pollen of domesticated plants
-diversified tool kits
-plant processing tools and storage facilities
237
intensive culture
-permanent cultivation of fields (raised, terraces, canals)
-fertilizers (soil chemistry, ash deposits, pollen)
-social inequality
-private land owners
ERTH
flashcards
Decks in class (18)
# Cards
-
erth midterm 1129
-
ANTH midterm 226
-
ERTH midterm 21
-
erth test 3300
-
anth final140
-
lwso final47
-
psyc final148
-
Arky midterm 1250
-
lwso 203 midterm 1 (topic 1-3)175
-
soci midterm 1188
-
lab quiz 460
-
lwso midterm 2 (topic 4-)103
-
arky lab quiz 549
-
lwso midterm 3 extra notes and slide questions68
-
questions that will 100% be on midterm 367
-
arky midterm 2238
-
soci midterm 23
-
arky - rest of stuff for final59
