1
Q
makes use of living cells and their components, such as enzymes, to manufacture new products and destroy harmful wastes.
A
Biochemical engineering, or bioprocess engineering
2
Q
Our ability to harness the capabilities of cells and enzymes is closely related to advances in
A
biochemistry, microbiology, immunology, and cell physiology
3
Q
stages of development of a complete industrial bioprocess
A
• The first stages may involve genetic engineering of microbes to produce wanted products.
• The next stage may involve microbiological techniques to optimize growth conditions for the microbes.
• Then, bench-top bioreactors are used to scale-up the process.
• The system is scaled-up again to pilot-scale bioreactors to examine scale-up effects of performance.
• Finally, design of the industrial-scale operation ensues.
4
Q
are the monomers of nucleic acids
A
Nucleotides
5
Q
There are eight common varieties of nucleotides, each composed of a
A
nitrogenous base linked to a sugar with at least one phosphate group attached
6
Q
The bases are planar, aromatic, and heterocyclic: either
A
purine or pyrimidine
7
Q
The most common purines are:
A
• adenine (A)
• guanine (G)
8
Q
The most common pyrimidines are:
A
• cytosine (C)
• uracil (U)
• thymine (T)
9
Q
In ribonucleotides (for RNA), the sugar is a pentose known as
A
ribose
10
Q
In deoxyribonucleotides (for DNA), the sugar is also a pentose known as
A
deoxyribose
11
Q
The best-known nucleotide is
A
adenosine triphosphate, ATP
12
Q
a nucleotide containing adenine, the sugar ribose, and a triphosphate group
A
adenosine triphosphate, ATP
13
Q
adenosine triphosphate, ATP, is formed from
A
adenosine diphosphate, ADP
14
Q
When the phosphate group is absent, the compounds are known as
A
nucleosides
15
Q
Ribonucleotides are components of
A
ribonucleic acid, RNA
16
Q
Deoxyribonucleotides are components of
A
deoxyribonucleic acid, DNA
17
Q
The phosphates of the polynucleotides RNA and DNA are acidic, so at physiological pH, nucleic acids are
A
polyanions
18
Q
The linkages between individual nucleotides are known as
A
phosphodiester bonds
19
Q
The phosphate is esterified to
A
two ribose units
20
Q
DNA forms a
A
double helix
21
Q
DNA forms a double helix, as determined by
A
James Watson and Francis Crick in 1953
22
Q
DNA forms a double helix, as determined by James Watson and Francis Crick in 1953 using
A
an Xray diffraction photograph taken by Rosalind Franklin
23
Q
RNA is single-stranded, and usually forms compact structures. Intramolecular base-pairing gives rise to
A
stem-loop structures
24
Q
are monomers of proteins.
A
Amino acids
25
Amino acids are linked to each other via
condensation reactions
26
Amino acids are linked to each other via condensation reactions, forming
peptide bonds
27
are molecules that contain one or more polypeptide chains.
PROTEINS
28
are the most abundant biological molecules.
Carbohydrates or saccharides
29
They are chemically simpler than nucleotides and amino acids, containing only C, H, and O.
Carbohydrates or saccharides
30
These elements are combined according to the formula
(CH2O)n, where n > 3
Carbohydrates or saccharides
31
The basic carbohydrate units are
monosaccharides
32
monosaccharides can be strung together to form
disaccharides, oligosaccharides, or polysaccharides
33
are aldehyde or ketone derivatives of straight-chain polyhydroxy alcohols containing at least three carbons.
monosaccharides
34
If the carbonyl group is an aldehyde, the sugar is an
aldose
35
If the carbonyl group is a ketone, the sugar is a
ketose
36
The stereochemistry of carbohydrates is assigned by
D or L
37
have the same absolute configuration at the asymmetric center farthest from their carbonyl group as does D-glyceraldehyde
D sugars
38
are biologically much less abundant than D sugars.
L sugars
39
are the simplest polysaccharides, consisting of two monosaccharide units
Disaccharides
40
Monosaccharides are joined to other monosaccharides via
glycosidic bonds
41
is a disaccharide of glucose and galactose. It is found naturally occurring in milk. It is also a reducing sugar
Lactose
42
are the simplest polysaccharides, consisting of two monosaccharide units
Disaccharides
43
is a disaccharide of glucose and fructose. It is commonly known as table sugar. It is non-reducing.
Sucrose
44
the primary structural component of plant cell walls, is a linear polymer of up to 15,000 D-glucose residues
Cellulose
45
the principal structural component of invertebrate exoskeletons, is a polymer of N-acetylD-glucosamine residues.
Chitin
46
Carbohydrates are used as substrates for _________, producing ethanol.
fermentation
47
Prior to fermentation, the monosaccharide, C6, passes through the __________ which splits it into two C3 molecules
glycolytic pathway
48
are substances of biological origin that are soluble in organic solvents such as chloroform and methanol.
Lipids
49
Lipids examples
fats, oils, certain vitamins and hormones, most nonprotein membrane components
50
In general, Lipids perform three biological functions:
• as essential components of biological membranes
• as energy stores
• as participants in cell signaling events
51
carboxylic acids with long-chain hydrocarbon side groups
Fatty Acids
52
are highly flexible molecules
Saturated fatty acids
53
The melting points of saturated fatty acids increase with
molecular mass
54
almost always have cis double bond configurations.
Unsaturated fatty acids
55
Less efficient packing and therefore lower melting points.
Unsaturated fatty acids
56
fatty acid triesters of glycerol
Triglycerides (triacylglycerols)
57
Most triglycerides contain ______ different types of fatty acid residues.
two or three
58
are complex mixtures of triglycerides whose fatty acid compositions vary with the organism that produced them.
Fats and oils
59
are usually richer in unsaturated fatty acids than animal fats.
Plant oils
60
Steroids are derivatives of
cyclopentanoperhydrophenanthrene
61
– the most abundant steroid in animals; classified as a sterol because of its C3-OH group
cholesterol
62
major component of animal plasma membranes
cholesterol
63
affect carbohydrate, protein, and lipid metabolism, as well as influence other vital functions such as inflammation and coping with stress (e.g. cortisol)
glucocorticoids
64
regulate the excretion of salt and water by the kidneys (e.g. aldosterone)
mineralocorticoids
65
affect sexual development and function (e.g. testosterone, estradiol)
androgens and estrogens
66
derived from five-carbon units with the same carbon skeleton as isoprene
Isoprenoids
67
Over 50,000 isoprenoids (also known as terpenoids), which are mostly of
plant, fungal, and bacterial origin, have been characterized.
68
retinol
vitamin A
69
vitamin K
pylloquinone or menaquinone
70
vitamin E
α-tocopherol
71
C20 compounds including prostaglandin, thromboxanes, leukotrienes, and lipoxins
Eicosanoids
72
act at very low concentrations and are involved in the production of pain and fever, and in the regulation of blood pressure, blood coagulation, and reproduction
Eicosanoids
73
In humans, the most important eicosanoid precursor is
arachidonic acid
74
All cells have a permeability barrier called the _______________ that separates the inside of the cell, the cytoplasm, from the outside
cytoplasmic membrane
75
lends structural strength to a cell; it is relatively permeable and a much stronger layer than the membrane itself.
cell wall
76
DNA is contained in an organelle (nucleus)
eukaryotes
77
contains the DNA of eukaryotic cells
nucleus
78
most microorganisms have cell walls, whereas ______ do not.
animal cells
79
site for cellular respiration; “powerhouse” of eukaryotic cells
mitochondria
80
DNA is “naked”
prokaryotes
80
network of membranes involved in lipid and glycoprotein syntheses
endoplasmic reticulum
81
chemical modification and sorting of products from the endoplasmic reticulum
Golgi complex
82
chlorophyll-containing organelles of eukaryotic cells
chloroplasts
83
use organic chemicals
chemoorganotrophs
83
compartments of digestive enzymes that hydrolyze proteins, fats, and sugars
lysosomes
83
organisms that conserve energy from chemicals
chemotrophs
84
use inorganic chemicals
chemolithotrophs
85
use light for energy, organic chemicals for carbon
photoorganotrophs
86
use light for energy, inorganic chemicals (CO2) for carbon
photolithotrophs
86
organisms that convert light energy into chemical energy
phototrophs
87
obtain energy only in the absence of oxygen
anaerobes
88
obtain energy from an organic compound only in the presence of oxygen
aerobes
88
obtain energy in either the presence or absence of oxygen
facultative aerobes
88
• occurs immediately after inoculation of the culture; rate of growth essentially zero
• adaptation to the new environment
Lag phase
89
growth achieves its maximum rate
growth phase
90
transition into the growth phase
acceleration phase
91
growth ceases; no further growth occurs
stationary phase
91
slowing down of growth due to depletion of nutrients in culture or accumulation of inhibitory products
decline phase
92
(for some cultures); cells lose viability or are destroyed by lysis
death phase
93
The specific growth rate depends on the concentration of nutrients in the medium.
• Often, a single substrate exerts a dominant influence on the rate of growth: _______
growth-limiting substrate
93
This relationship between growth rate and concentration of nutrients is given by the
MONOD EQUATION
94
are nature’s catalysts
Enzymes
95
Enzymes differ from ordinary chemical catalysts in several important aspects:
• higher reaction rates
• milder reaction conditions
• greater reaction specificity
• capacity for regulation
95
specific proteins that enhance biochemical reactions
Enzymes
96
Enzymes are commonly named by appending the suffix
–ase
96
Enzymes are classified and name according to the nature of the chemical reactions they catalyze.
• oxidoreductases
• transferases
• hydrolases
• lyases
• isomerases
• ligases
97
The kinetics of most enzyme reactions are reasonably well represented by the model:
MICHAELIS-MENTEN EQUATION
98
– the amount of enzyme needed to convert 1 μmole of substrate into products per minute under standard conditions
international unit of enzyme activity (IU)
99
– SI unit; amount of enzyme required to convert 1 mole of substrate per second
katal (kat)
100
For an enzyme with a single rate-controlling step, the effect of temperature can be described by the
Arrhenius expression
101
Many proteins start to denature at
45 to 50C
102
Well-mixed continuous reactors are often referred to as
continuous stirred tank reactors (CSTRs) or continuous stirred tank fermenters (CSTFs)
103
– liquid volume is kept constant by setting inlet and outlet flow rates equal; steady state is achieved as concentrations in the chemostat adjust themselves to the feed rate
chemostat
104
– liquid volume also kept constant; inlet flow rate is adjusted to keep biomass concentration constant
turbidostat
105
Bioreactors are operated continuously in bioprocess industries such as
brewing, production of bakers’ yeast, and waste treatment.
106
Enzyme conversions can also be carried out using
continuous systems
107
Different steady-state operation strategies are available for CSTFs
chemostat, turbidostat
108
There are three principal modes of bioreactor operation:
• batch
• fed-batch
• continuous
109
Characteristics such as final biomass, substrate, and product concentrations can be determined for different reactor operating schemes using
mass balances.
110
It states that there is a topographical, structural compatibility between an enzyme and its substrate
lock-and-key theory
111
It is defined as the quantity of enzymes needed to transform 1.0 micromole of substrate to product per minute at 30oC and optimal pH.
International Unit
112
The enzyme in the stomach is:
pepsin
113
There are several forms suggested by which the hyperbolic Michaelis Menten equation may be expressed linearly. If the substrate concentration, s, is plotted against reaction velocity, v, a linear plot is obtained. This equation is called:
Eisenthal-Cornish-Bowden equation
114
These are non-photosynthetic, highly-organized eukaryotes with soil as their major habitat.
protozoa
115
These are DNA or RNA-coated proteins that may or may not be considered as living things.
viruses
116
Plants that are devoid of chlorophyll and are therefore unable to synthesize their own food are called:
fungi
117
In phototrophic cells, this is the organelle serving as the major cell powerhouse.
chloroplast
118
The microorganism utilized in the production of pickles is:
lactic acid bacteria
119
The powerhouse of the cell is called the:
mitochondrion
120
This is the method used to free milk from disease or germs
pasteurization
121
These are very small bound particles that release digestive enzymes and contribute to the digestion of nutrients in a cell.
lysosomes
122
This is a group of microorganisms that grow in the presence of low oxygen concentrations
microaerophiles
123
Bacteria which grow over the temperature range of 30oC to 40oC are called:
mesophiles
124
The time to kill all bacteria in a particular culture at a specified temperature
TDT (thermal death time)
125
An organism that grows or uses CO2 as its principal carbon source:
autotroph
126
The organism that reproduces by sporulation is:
molds
127
This is the early period of growth where the organism adjusts to its new environment.
lag phase
128
Materials in which microorganisms are grown in a laboratory are:
culture media
129
A visible concentrated growth of algae or other aquatic life/plants is called:
bloom
130
The temperature at which a microorganism is killed within a period of 10 minutes is called:
TDP (thermal death point)
131
A waste treatment process by which biologically active growth is continuously circulated with incoming biodegradable waste in the presence of oxygen:
activated sludge process
132
A waste treatment process by which biologically active growth is continuously circulated with incoming biodegradable waste in the presence of oxygen:
activated sludge process
133
The biological decomposition of organic matter accompanied by the production of foul-smelling products in an anaerobic condition is:
putrefaction
134
Bacteria which convert alcoholic solutions to vinegar are:
acetobacters
135
These are bacteria considered to be ancient organisms, such as methanogens, halobacteria, and thermoacidophiles
archaebacteria
Correlation 1
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